NEWS the way you like it (or not)
REFLECTIONS ON RELIGION
ECONOMICS seen through the Eyes of a taxpayer
HISTORIC REALITIES
GREAT PEOPLE - GREAT MINDS
Let's start with the News Services. I find that most so called News is not as one outfit would like us to believe. It tells us that they are offering "fair and balanced" News. I don't want to tell anyone to believe or disbelieve this statement, I for one does not.
First of all I find that the presentation of the news is in such a matter of sensationalism that makes your head swim. Within seconds the picture is changing rapidly (for no reason at all other than getting your attention). However, if these people who know it all, would be less forceful and rather more moderate in their approach to the consumer, the listener would not be as bewildered. I find it outright insulting.
This particular News operation, let's call it GUX, is not my cup of tea. Most of the announcers are alright, but some are incredible self-confident (I am trying to be kind:)). One in particular who prides himself as the "No spin zone", is amazingly right on the button when it comes to Politicians who are stepping out of line. He also has no use for Pedophiles (neither have I), he hits hard on judges who are passing out sentences which are ridiculous. In general he often takes the sides of the less privileged and unfairly treated individuals. I salute him for that.
When it comes to history, wars, foreign policies of the US, I would call his performance very poor. He is a lot of times either uninformed, misinformed or GRAVELY MISTAKEN.
Then there is a pair of Reporters who seem to be on opposite sides of generally accepted themes. One seems to lean more to the left, the other is to me "THE RIGHT OF THE RIGHT WING:. He constantly interrupts his opponents, shows very little civil behavior and most of all "His mind is like concrete - all mixed up and permanently set". To listen to him about the subject of IRAQ, I wonder if he really believes what he says or if he is actually programmed. Every time I listen to his commentaries, I get sick to my stomach.
And then, there are two females - well I will not comment - everyone else does!
There is another News organization which is not quite as "powerful:). Again, the news which pertains to history and present International happenings is NOT balanced. I am glad that this organization has not yet followed the other one in jumping all over the place in changing the background every few seconds. As a matter of fact, it is rather soothing on one's Nerves, specially the Gentleman who is offering the news in the "Situation room". Listening to him, not necessarily what he says, but rather how he says it, one does not need to worry about getting a nervous breakdown:)
We cannot change the way the big corporations operate, but we can take several options. One of them would be the Shut - off of the remote control. I use it often and it works:)
And then there are those who are not sure of either - they could be called "Agnostics".
I assume that" hearing the word of God" means listening to a third person e.g. Pastor, priest etc. reading from the Bible. If this is a true argument, then one has to wonder why a person would not read the GOOD BOOK in the privacy of their own home.
According to general believe "God" is everywhere. Why would God be in a church more so than in anyone's home? I would suggest that this is only an excuse for a tradition which goes back hundreds of years.
If those who are so interested in God's word would make the effort to read the Bible, he or she would soon find that what is told in Church are only self serving segments." I don't care if people are religious or not, go to church or not, I am only concerned and interested in the honesty, decency and dependability of a person. Religion is often being credited for being the fountain of truth. I would like to point out that religion has absolutely nothing to do with the character and credibility of a person.
I would invite anyone, being of sound mind, to look deeper into the mythology of religion in general, The Christian religion in particular and especially the teachings of the Catholic Church.
Anyone who wishes to discuss (BUT NOT DEBATE) these matters in a civilized way is welcome to express his or her ideology. Christianity is a business and a very good one at that. The churches are getting bigger and more glamorous. The greatest part of the believers are getting poorer.
Have you ever looked into the sky on a clear night and seen literally thousands of stars. I found the "UNIVERSE" listed on the Internet Wikipedia-Universe a fascinating article. The currently accepted scientific theory of the universe's formation is the Big Bang model, which describes the expansion of space-time from a gravitational singularity.
This concept is not accepted by the Christian Churches who advocate CREATIONISM. Most Scientists do favor the idea of Evolution. I am not qualified to give an intelligent answer to this argument, but I, personally, am convinced that the kind of God which Christianity created, had nothing to do with the creation of the Universe.
I came across an article by MSNBC dated May 27. 07, updated at 3:00 a.m. by Peter Slvin of the Washington Post. A monument to creation.
In Petersburg (KY)Evangelists maintain that the earth is only 6,000 years old and that God created the universe in 6 days. Personally, I consider this total nonsense. One does not have to be a scientist to know that the universe is certainly much older as these people maintain.
Since most Christian Churches use the Bible and/or the New testament as the foundation of their teachings, it is interesting to examine the Bible a little closer.
From the obvious mistakes, repeats etc. it is clear that the Bible has been written by people hundreds of years apart. The authors of the Bible were in part uneducated and unrealistic beings. I would like to point out some of the inconsistent parts of the Bible - the parts which you will not hear in your church.
"And God said, Let there be light" (Gen. 1:3) and "...And the evening and the morning were the first day" (Gen. 1:5), versus "And God said, 'Let there be light in the firmament of the heaven to divide the day from the night.... ' "And God made two lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night: he made the stars also.... And the evening and morning were the fourth day" (Gen. 1:14-19).
One of the many misdirected decisions the Catholic Church has dished out is the sad story of Galileo. This Italian scientist had the courage to tell the world that the EARTH was round. In 1633 the Inquisition of the Roman Catholic Church forced Galileo Galilei, one of the founders of modern science, to recant his theory that the Earth moves around the Sun. Under threat of torture, Galileo recanted.
Almost 400 years later, the Church finally agreed. At a ceremony in Rome, Pope John Paul II declared that Galileo was right.
That's the same POPE who declared that divorced people, after they get married again, may never again have sex!
I respectfully submit that POPE John Paul II, considering his ridiculous decree dated February 25. 97, must have experimented in Artificial Stupidity.
Direct quote: Vatican City (AP) Divorced Catholics who remarry should be urged to stop living in a " state of sin" ....meaning no sex in a new relationship.
Priests also should counsel those who have not remarried to remain faithful to their original vows and not enter into other unions, according to the guidelines, issued by the Pontifical Council on the Family.
Priests should invite such couples "to recognize their irregular situation, which involves a state of sin, and ask God for the grace of a true conversion." Vatican officials said that means couples should abstain from sex.
ROMAN power extended to the MEDITERRANEAN lands, including PALESTINE. The JEWS did not appreciate the government of ROME and had tried a few times to overthrow the ROMAN occupancy. Because they were second class citizens under the ROMAN rule, they were desperately looking for a savior , a king, a MESSIAH, that would free them from the ROMAN bondage.
Jewish believe was for centuries that eventually a King would come which would free them from the bondage of ROME. Isaiah who lived in the eighth century B.C. foretold the subjugation of the Jews by Babylon, which occurred some two hundred years after his death. From the time of the Babylonian Captivity (586 B.C.) the JEWS suffered from succeeding foreign conquerors and their hope to be relieved from their misery was focused on the "MESSIAH". It was not so much that they struggled for political freedom but rather for religious liberty.
The immediate time before and years after JESUS CHRIST'S birth has been written about thousands of times by all kinds of historians, religious institutions etc., therefore it is of little use to rehash the same over and over again. To make a long story short, JESUS was a teacher, he preached, he did not think himself to be a GOD. Some biographers portray JESUS as a carpenter, for the missing 18 years of his life, no one can account for. However, many who studied the so called "MIRACLES of JESUS" are convinced that he spent these years in a convent with the High Priests. Since the High priests of Egypt were experts in science and much higher educated than the public, it stands to reason that JESUS learned all the tricks of his trade with the High priests.
JESUS' cousin "JOHN" was already busy preaching and was considered a prophet. JOHN also preached to his followers that there would be a king coming who would deliver them from the oppressors. JESUS considered this prophecy pertaining to him (God only knows why). He went to JOHN and was baptized by him. He immediately surrounded himself with some young men who he called his decibels. The rest is history, not worth repeating again. He considered himself "SON OF GOD", yet he could not help himself when he was nailed to the cross. One moment he is human and suffers great pain, the next moment is GOD. Something which always gave me food of thought.
One thing is sure, he never attempted to start a new religion. He wanted to help his own people as best as he could. It is no secret that the JEWS did not appreciate his "MIRACLES." Since the JEWS had no use for this "SAVIOR" at that time and any time after, it took a few "NONE-JEWS" to spin the fable of "CHRIST" and all his alleged miracles. It did not take very long and this newly started religion (at first very tiny) to spread. Over the next 300 years it turned into fanaticism which spread to unbelievable heights and survived against all logic even today.
Prior to the middle of 500's B.C. the main religion of India was Brahmisnism. This religion was a modified version of an older religion - Vedism. The "scriptures" are witness of the work of poets living 1,000 to 2,000 years before that.
About 563 B.C. a boy was born in Nepal. As it turned out he was going to be "BUDDHA". His original name was Siddhartha Gautama. Little or nothing is available of written records of his earlier life or his life all together. Actually, nothing was written about "BUDDHA" until hundreds of years after his death. What actually happened during his life time is a mixture of history and legend.
"BUDDHA" was born of wealthy parents, his father being a PRINCE, he enjoyed a trouble free upbringing. This was enhanced by the fact that the parents of "BUDDHA" did belong to a high caste.
As the young boy grew up, it became apparent that he was of extraordinary intelligence. His quest for knowledge never seemed to end. There are conflicting reports of his marriage. One version is that he won his wife in a contest of a military conflict. The other version tells of him getting married when he was 28 years old. Regardless which version you want to accept, he did not stay with his wife very long. During his 29. year of his life he left his home and for the next 50 years dedicated his life to teaching. During the first years of his travels he must have seen a lot of misery among the population. This must have formed and matured his mind. He came to the conclusion that the religion he presently adhered to, was not the answer to the sufferings of the human race.
He was looking for a solution to better the lot of mankind. He had seen the splendor of life and while traveling he was exposed to life style of the working people and the very poor. While still at home at his palace, he was surrounded by splendor and the "GOOD LIFE". Because of his social standing he not only had a wife but also a small harem of "PLEASURE GIRLS". One day while traveling with his "chauffeur" he met a man with a shaven head and yellow robe. He asked his companion who that man was , and was told that he was " ONE WHO DEDICATED HIS LIFE TO BEING HOMELESS."
The night following, while surrounded by his pleasure girls, he suddenly became aware that his luxurious life was meaningless and he decided to change his ways. He bade farewell to his wife and taking his companion with him left his home. He soon cut off his long hair with his own sword, dismissed his servant and went on his way to seek the "TRUTH." He thought that he must concentrate on the woe's of the world.
He changed his princely clothing for a beggar's torn robe in his quest for the "TRUTH." His goal was to search for the simple life as he blamed most of the problems in this world on lust and selfish conduct. As he himself was not immune to the lust of the flesh he thought answers from several Sage's, but they could not give him the answers he wanted. For several years he lived an austere life. He meditated and eventually overcame fear, subdued the lust of the flesh and gained complete control over his mind.
One day, while meditating, Enlightment came to him. He realized for the first time, the cause of all suffering and the means to to overcome same. From that moment on (age35)he became "BUDDHA THE ENLIGHTENED ONE.".
At first he decided that he would be a "BUDDHA" only to himself. (BUDHISM - The doctrine, attributed to Buddha, that suffering is inseparable from existence but that inward extinction of the self and of worldly desire culminates in a state of spiritual enlightment beyond both suffering and existence.) (Credit to "the American Heritage Dictionary" of the English Language, Third Edition 1992). He found some young men who were interested in his teachings. He ordained them and were send out to preach the "WORD."
For the next forty-five years "BUDDHA" and his disciples wandered about India preaching the Dharma (book of truth). The number of believers increased rapidly, chiefly within the intellectual and wealthy class. The monastic Order established by "BUDDHA" (his headquarter of his ministry) also grew very fast. Members to this monastery were carefully screened. They had to make their living by begging. They were called "Bikkhus". Each one was required to wear a yellow robe and shave his head. Later on, an order of nuns was established as well.
Only once in his ministry did he return to his fathers palace for a visit. His son, asked him for his inheritance, his father (Buddha) received him into his order of Monks. In his eightieth year he died among his disciples.
BUDDHISM ignored the existence of gods, and had no place for sacrifice, prayer, worship or the priesthood which the gods demanded. It taught rebirth - the transmigration of souls- the believe that when a man dies his soul returns to earth in another body.
The BUDDHIST religion required from its followers extremely high moral standards. E.G. No living thing was to be killed; no-one was to take what had not been given to him, adultery was strictly forbidden, all lying was forbidden, no intoxicating drinks were to be taken, no one was to be the owner of silver or gold. These were the main points.
The spread of BUDDHISM was extraordinary, for it proclaimed a way of life which, unlike the teaching of other religions, could be readily understood by men. Within a relative short time BUDDHISM swept all over Asia, from India to Japan. The number of people practicing BUDDHISM may be in excess of 100 Million all over the world.
About six hundred years after the death of JESUS, (allegedly the founder of CHRISTIANITY?) the people of Syria, Egypt and Ethiopia all professed faith to ISLAM.
ISLAM, a major world religion, founded in ARABIA and based on the teachings of MUHAMMAD, who is called the Prophet. One who practices ISLAM is a Muslim. A Muslim follows the Koran, the written revelation brought by MUHAMMAD. The MUSLIM world population is estimated at more than 1 billion. ISLAM is foremost practiced in AFRICA, MIDDLE EAST and sections of ASIA and EUROPE.
The two fundamental sources of Islamic doctrine and practice are the KORAN and the SUNNA. MUSLIMS regard the KORAN as the speech of GOD to MUHAMMED and they believe that GOD himself is the author. The SUNNA, or example of the Prophet, is known through Hadith, the body of traditions based on the words and actions of the Prophet. Unlike the KORAN, Hadith is not considered infallible.
MOHAMMED has been born between A.D. 560 and 571. His mother died when he was only 6. He was brought up by his Grandfather, who was a wealthy merchant. As a boy, MUHAMMED accompanied his uncle on trading journeys to both the north and the south with the two yearly caravans which were dispatched from MECCA each summer (to SYRIA) and each winter (to the YEMEN). At Age 25 he married a wealthy widow, who was some fifteen years older than himself.
It is known that by the time he was twenty-five he had acquired a reputation for practical wisdom well above the average. Many of his fellow citizens sought his advice and help in financial and religious matters. The parts of the KORAN which deal with his early personal life, was composed by the Prophet himself. It is therefore difficult to know exactly when it was that MOHAMMED began to feel that he was being called upon to act as the mouthpiece of GOD. An early Biographer set the date to 610.
What exactly motivated him he never clearly explained himself. It would seem, however, that he was impressed by the effects of the paganism all around him and the influence of CHRISTIANITY, he aspired to restore the ancient "religion of ABRAHAM".
Why he chose the " religion of ABRAHAM" has been the subject of much speculation, since before his time this religion was not widely known. It has been suggested, per contra that it had been generally practiced in the city of MECCA so far back in time that everything relating to it had been forgotten. One of the features of the religion of "ABRAHAM" was circumcision. There were technical differences from the JEWISH method, by the tribes of MECCA , but not by any other tribes of the ARABIAN peninsula, except in the JEWISH communities.
It is thought that the religious confusion which the recognition of scores of GODS created impressed itself upon MUHAMMED and that he saw that a monotheistic religion would remove the confusion. In his search for such a system, influenced no doubt by that he had learned of JEWISH traditions, and by the JEWISH practice of circumcision and the observance of the custom by the MECCAN tribes, he decided to revive and restore the ancient religion.
The revelation that he was to be the mouthpiece of GOD reputedly came to him while he was in a religious retreat on Mount Hira, near MECCA. There one day, while he was meditating, the Archangel GABRIEL, appeared to him and not only announced to him his mission, but related the first pronouncements on which the restored religion was to be based.
From then on and during the three following years, MOHAMMED claimed that he received DIVINE guidance either through the intervention of the Archangel GABRIEL, or in direct contact with GOD. In the beginning he preached to his closest relatives. After a while his scope of mission was widened.
During 616 he began to preach in public. His sermons were mostly violent attacks on the local MECCAN deities and expositions of the true religion. While he steadily increased the number of his followers, but there were others who did not agree with his philosophy. It soon came to the point where his followers were persecuted. Some left MECCA and immigrated to ETHIOPIA. The part of the city where MOHAMMED and his closest associates were living , was besieged by his enemies. After a while the situation became intolerable and slowly some of his followers began to falter. MOHAMMED was confronted with the request that he would retract all he had said about the MECCAN deities. There was no way out of the situation, MOHAMMED complied.
This defeat did a great deal of harm to his mission, but there was help on the way. Because of political squabble between some cities, they invited him to act as an ombudsman to keep the piece between the feuding cities. This arrangement had to be kept secret as otherwise the MECCAN authorities would have taken steps to prevent MOHAMMED becoming a dictator of the city of MECCA. His friends, in total secrecy, left the city of MECCA in small groups and settled in MEDINA. Finally only MOHAMMED and two of his friends were left in MECCA. On July 16. 622, MOHAMMED with his companions made their escape. the MOHAMMEDAN era thereafter was proclaimed to begin from this date.
In 630 he again returned to MECCA, which he left years ago as a fugitive, now as conqueror. Two years later he died, but by that time he was master of all ARABIA.
The emergence of the Prophet and the great success he achieved in so comparatively short a time was a dominant factor in shaping not only the history of the Middle and Near East, but of the MEDITERRANEAN AREAS OF EUROPE. The MOSLEM MOORS, who ruled the greater part of SPAIN for more than six hundred years, had a culture of their own, the influence of which on the arts and on letters was not confined to that country. The MOORS had a hand in shaping the emergence of the NEW WORLD. It is doubtful whether any of these developments would, or could, have taken place but for the great welding powers of the religion which not only made it possible for kindred but warring races to forget their differences, but for them to combine together to exert an influence on the history of the world.
There is hardly a week going by without the news services telling us that such and such a company has been laying off employees - mostly permanent. It seems that we are living in an era where enormous economic changes in the manufacturing field are happening. There are many reasons for the declining demand for employees - so many in fact that it is impossible to name them all. In my own personal opinion one of the main causes are outsourcing of jobs to foreign countries.
It is obvious that this is being done by big industry to improve their bottom line. Unfortunately, there is no consideration for the people of the lower social ladder. The system is totally aligned for the benefit of BIG MONEY. CEO's are getting bonuses which are, in all fairness, obscene. As an example, and there are many more like it, a departed CEO of an International Supply company, received an unusual large amount. It is said to be in the tenths of millions of Dollars. I am asking is that fair? Well, this is not getting better, but I am afraid that the working middle class will be soon in dire straits.
Elderly people - Pensioners - who in the past relayed on interest income from the investments, are incapable of making ends meet. The banks are insulting any reasonable thinking person with their extremely low - or none - interest. In the meantime Inflation is creeping up - a lot more than officially is acknowledged. Our Governments don't mind spending Billions of Dollars - Your dollars - for projects which would be laughable if it were not such a sad situation.
People are afraid that their living expanses will or already have exceeded their income. Many people are starting to ask - how is this possible?. One of the causes, which drive inflation up, is the housing market. While I do not disapprove of people wanting to have their own home, it is questionable if home ownership is for everyone.
Since the economy is driven mostly (during the last 10 years or so) by the new housing construction explosion. Prices of new houses went up considerable. BIG MONEY - the banks seen an opportunity to invest money which they easily create out of nothing. Since these new homeowners are largely depending on huge mortgages, the money supply was steadily increased. Most of the owners of new houses are in contracts which extend over 30 - 40 years. A great number of new home owners have been lured to apply for mortgages which are sub prime. This means that the banks either took the risk by asking higher rates or the unfortunate home owner was forced to borrow from other sources at circumstances which may soon going to be a problem. Some bought homes without down payment, or little down payment, initial low payments, interest payments only (with no reduction of the principal etc. etc.
If the employment situation does not change for the better, I can see a huge amount of home foreclosures coming. This situation has not as yet hit Canada, but in some parts of the US, foreclosures are rising at alarming rates. This of course is causing other houses to decline in value. It is a vicious circle and only a determined intervention by the Government(s) can soften the unavoidable housing crash.
Joseph Stalin was the general secretary of the Communist Party 1922 - 1953, and was Premier of the U.S.S.R. (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics from 1941 - 1953. He was one of the most controversial leaders of it's time line. For those readers who are lucky enough to be of a younger age and did not witness, from near or far, this monster suppress the Citizens of the USSR, I am enclosing a URL which is absolutely fabulous. Here it is:
This site continues with pictures and lot's of text to his very end - 1953.
During his life time, he was in disagreement (that's putting it lightly) with the German Dictator Adolf Hitler. Hitler, did have plans to EXPAND the German state by invading the neighbor states with military force. For the longest time, England and France, were trying to initiate a None Aggression pact with the USSR. By incredible intrigue, Hitler managed to cut in between and struck a None Aggression pact with Stalin. This None Aggression pact between Hitler and Stalin was also called the "Molotov-Ribbentrop" pact. (Molotov being the foreign Minister of the USSR and Ribbentrop was his counterpart on the Third Reich.
For the complete text of the Report by the Chairman of the Soviet People's Commissars, March 29. 1940 go to:
The pact was signed in Moscow on August 23. 1939. In it's agreement there were secret sections which allowed the USSR to join into the dissection of a number of sovereign states, e.g. Poland.
This maneuver gave Hitler a free hand (short lived as it was) to finalize his blueprint for starting WW2.On September 1. 1939 Germany invaded Poland in flagrant violation of the Geneva Convention. The Military action of Germany against Poland was unprovoked. After a few weeks the USSR joint into the massacre of the Polish state and the outcome was a devided Poland, half of it occupied by Germany, the other half by the USSR.
The following colossal upheaval of the greater part of Europe is another story which has been talked about, written in many volumes, Radio and TV Interviews of eyewitnesses and a lot of research into the archives.
I will only skip over some of the horrific times of killings, the maiming of countless military personnel and civilian population, and let more qualified people testify to this unforgivable misery this man - Adolf Hitler - has brought on the world.
Adolf Hitler was born in Braunau, Austria on April 20. 1889 and died by suicide on April 30. 1945. The few possitive accomplishments during his leadership of Germany were:
The Downside of his activities as leader were:
For a better and a deeper inside into a time which on hindesight could be considered insane - click on
MUSSOLINI was the Prime Minister of Italy from 1922 to 1943. He was another of the infamous leaders of that time. He was executed near Lake Como in April 1945 by partisans.
For further information please click on: BENITO MUSSOLINI
753 B.C. ROME was founded by two infant brothers ROMULUS AND REMUS. Legend has it that these two orphans were suckled by a she-wolf.
600 B.C. ROME's Cloaca Maxima (Drainage system) is built. this giant drainage system will drain the marshy area that will become the site of the ROMAN Forum.
268 B.C. The ROMAN denarius is minted for the first time. The silver coin will become familiar throughout the Western world.
170 B.C. The World's first paved streets are laid out in Rome. The new streets are passable in all weather and easier to keep clean.
132 B.C. Social justice at it's worst. ROME's war against Servile is ended. ROMAN forces capture the Syrian Eunus and savagely execute him and his supporters. More than 70.000 slaves are believed to have taken part in the uprising; 20,000 were crucified.
110 A.D. ROME's population exceeds 1 Million. It is the largest city in the world.
201 A.D. ROME establishes medical licenses given only to trained physicians, having passed examinations. Civic hospitals are set up.
Some 400,000 slaves perform the menial work of ROME. Middle-class citizens own often 8 slaves. The rich from 500 - 1,000. An Emperor would own as many as 20,000 slaves. Free urban workers enjoy 17 - 18 hours of leisure each day. Free workers enjoy free admission to bath, sports events and gladiatorial contests.
At that same time period (201 A.D.) the population of ROME has increased to 1,5 Million. People are mostly housed in apartment blocks, 3 - 8 stories high, made of wood and brick.
213 A.D. The well-to-do ROMANS did use public bath installations, libraries, auditoriums and public gardens free of charge. The poor were not that lucky they had to wash up in the river "TIBER". ROME at that time already had sewers and health inspections. Outside of ROME, in the smaller towns and villages the streets were littered with human excrement.
250 A.D. The first significant persecution of Christians occurred under the emperor Decius.
260 A.D. Runaway inflation makes the monetary value of the "denarius" next to worthless. This was a deep depression. Many of the small business operators and landowners lost everything they had. Those with the necessary funds bought up the land and other valuables for next to nothing.
310 A.D.Because of the collapse of the ROMAN currency, the emperor Diocletian limits the prices of goods and services in an effort to ease the economic distress.
410 A.D.ROME is being sacked by the Gothic King Alaric.
455 A.D. ROME again is being sacked, but this time by "Vandals." This may be the origin of the name "Vandal" and/or "Vandalism".
After 395 A.D. the mighty ROMAN empire was split into two parts, the Byzantine Empire and the Western ROMAN Empire. The ROMAN empire quickly sank into anarchy under the onslaught of barbarian invaders from the north and east. The last emperor of the West, Romulus Augustulus (b.461 A.D.) was deposed by Goths in 476. This year 476 is considered the official end of the ROMAN empire.
Humans always knew that there was good and bad weather, storms, the sun, the moon , the stars, the oceans etc.. But it took some outstanding minds to force the knowledge ahead. About 600 B.C. - it could be called an explosion - men's thinking began to enlarge. Great credit belongs to a man by the name of "THALES". He was born in Miletus, in the ancient Greek state of Ionia. He came out of a great family of means. Because of his financial independence, he was able to travel considerable. He traveled to EGYPT, Asia Minor and other foreign places.
He found that other nations had their different ways of thinking. Their religious believes differed from his own. Being a practical man, he undertook to investigate the various customs. He was very curious and being an engineer, looked for answers. He was one of the first in history to predict that the moon was just a lump of earth and when in between the sun and the earth would cause an ellipse.
He made charts of the heavens, proved the charts could be used for navigation purpose across the sea. He was principally involved in establishing that the Little Bear in the heavens was more important for navigation purposes than the Great Bear. Thales established that by measuring two angles to an object, the range of the object could be calculated. He also determined the height of a mountain by measuring the horizontal distance to its base, and the vertical angle to its summit.
Thames was not confined to the sciences of geometry and navigation, even so he is best remembered for his contribution to them. Many of his ideas were not necessarily new, but never before did human beings adopt to his inventions so fast. Because of his influence, money was brought into commerce to replace bartering. From then on, it was not necessary anymore to swap a basket of olives for a pair of sandals. One could part with the olives for a silver coin and could use the coin to buy whatever one wished.
Thales was the instigator of many new ideas and in that sense got the ball rolling for further scientific advancements. Scientists like Anaxagoras and Empedocles went further than Thales did. They developed his ideas about astronomy, expanded his meager tally of geometrical theorems and therefore blazed a trail to the two great discoveries of the fifth century B.C.These were the exact knowledge of the annual movement of the sun in the heavens and the determination of musical intervals - the discovery that every note has an exact mathematical relationship with every other.
The fifth century was the century of Democritus, possibly the greatest of the Greek scientists or physical "philosophers.". He, like Thales, did a lot of travelling. He was born in the year of 460 B.C. He predicted that everything in the Universe is composed of atoms, moving in a vacuum. He was ahead of the world by 2,000 years. Greek Science flourished during that time and many inventions were made. Although men as Euclid and Archimedes did keep up Thale's work and improved on it, after a short while, Science was buried and forgotten. Science slumbered through the middle ages, before being awakened at the Renaissance, but taken up from a point nearly 2,000 years before. Many of the writings of these early Scientists are lost, but those that survive show us how advanced was their thinking and how much in their debt we are. If we study ultimate theories of life and the universe around us, we find that little has changed, fundamentally, since these first great strides in man's thinking were taken, over two thousand years ago.
About two thousand five hundred years ago ROMULUS and REMUS founded a village on the banks of the river TIBER in ITALY. This village developed in time to be the city of ROME. Some five hundred years after the founding of ROME the ROMAN EMPIRE extended to most of the known world. ROMANS were by no means the only people living on the ITALIAN peninsula. Several nations and tribes already were established when the ROMAN people established themselves.
Long before the city of ROME was founded , the most powerful nation in the Mediterranean were the GREEKS. For several centuries the GREEKS enjoyed superiority in naval strength which would protect their many settlements adjacent to the Mediterranean territory. There was another great power in this vicinity. A people, known as the PHOENICIANS, were living in and around TYRE one of the most ancient PALESTINIAN cities. Unlike the ROMANS and the GREEKS, these people did not feature war and expansion, but rather were interested to sell their products. It is established that these people traveled through the straits of GIBRALTAR all the way around AFRICA and up the RED SEA to southern EGYPT. They, unlike the GREEKS and ROMANS knew that the world did not end at Gibraltar. They sailed all the way around SPAIN through the ENGLISH channel and it is even considered that they reached the BALTIC sea.
By traveling all over the MEDITERRANEAN sea they established trading posts, both on the southern edge of EUROPE and the northern edge of AFRICA. One of these was the ancient city of CARTHAGE. It is located on the northern cost of AFRICA, near modern TUNIS, TUNISIA. The short distance between CARTHAGE and the southern cost of SICILY made the control of the MEDITERRANEAN shipping easy. This fact made them the masters of the MEDITERRANEAN SEA.
the development of ROME and CARTHAGE coincided, but the CARTHAGINIANS were more successful in spreading their influence. They seized SARDINIA and CORSICA and the western part of ITALY. When it came to operating their armies there was a distinct difference. While CARTHAGE relied mostly on mercenaries ROMANS formed their own armies. The rivalry between these two powers grew steadily. While ROME was occupied with subduing ITALY the CARTHAGINIANS expanded in the west. They first occupied SICILY which in turn started the 1. Punic war (264-241 B.C.). This war was fought mostly at Sea and ended with a ROMAN victory, with SICILY, SARDINIA AND CORSICA being taken over by ROME.
Soured by this defeat the CARTHAGINIANS invaded SPAIN. HANNIBAL, the son of the EMPEROR of CARTHAGE, HAMILCAR, was only in his twenties. He was a very intelligent and competent general. He attacked some of the ROMAN allies in SPAIN and defeated them severely. The ROMANS send an ultimatum to HANNIBAL which he ignored. ROME declared war on CARTHAGE. This is exactly what HANNIBAL wanted to happen. Leading his armies out of SPAIN, he marched at lightning speed through southern GAUL (FRANCE) towards ITALY. A ROMAN ARMY send to intercept him was soundly beaten in the valley of the RHONE. He was intending to invade Italy from the northwest. HANNIBAL received information that the ROMANS were blocking all routes into ITALY. He lead his armies and ELEPHANTS over the ALPS. All ROMAN forces sent to stop HANNIBAL were crushed by the CARTHAGINIANS. It would seem at the time that only a miracle could save the ROMANS from a complete disaster. This miracle was not long in the coming. The ROMANS sent an army, under the leadership of GENERAL SCIPIO (25 years old) to SPAIN to attack the CARTHAGINIANS there. He was truly brilliant and within three years drove the CAFRTHAGINIANS out of SPAIN.
While HANNIBAL was waiting for re-inforcements General SCIPIO moved his army back to ITALY. He realized that he could not defeat the opponent on ITALIAN ground. He therefore devised a ingenious plan to attack CARTHAGE itself. He quickly defeated the home army of CARTHAGE. Shortly afterwards HANNIBAL brought his troops back to his homeland. Both generals realized that the outcome of this battle would be decisive for both countries future. It was arranged that the two greatest generals up to this time would meet. General SCIPIO made certain demands on HANNIBAL which the later could not accept. This started the famous battle of ZAMA . Both sides had about the same number of soldiers , about 40,000 each. In addition to his infantry and cavalry, HANNIBAL had 80 ELEPHANTS. These battle-ELEPHANTS were a great threat to SCIPIO. One of the deciding factors was that SCIPIO'S army was composed mostly of ROMANS and ITALIANS, while HANNIBAL'S army was a mixed lot of GREEKS, SPANIARDS, MOORS, GAULS and BRUTTII (A tribe of northern ITALY). These men had nothing to loose but their pay and did not consider the pay worth dying for.
The ELEPHANTS were a formidable force to reckon with. No ROMAN general ever had to deal with such a situation. General SCIPIO used a very simple scheme to overcome this problem. When the ELEPHANTS charged, he instructed his trumpeters to make the loudest noises possible. This irritated the ELEPHANTS and they panicked. When the soldiers seen their ELEPHANTS in disarray, they turned and fled. HANNIBAL lost more than 20,000 men, while the ROMAN casualties were only 1,500 killed. The peace terms dictated by ROME were so severe that the power of CARTHAGE was destroyed forever. ROME now had free hand in the whole of the MEDITERRANEAN. They started to concentrate on building the greatest empire the world has known. The ROMANS were great law-givers, great road builders great farmers, writers, poets and teachers. When their empire broke up during the fourth century A.D. every country they once were masters of had good roads, fine laws and many other benefits derived from ROMAN civilization. SCIPIOS defeat of HANNIBAL at ZAMA changed the world.
It is a historical fact that human beings did not and would not live in peace very long at any time, anywhere. There was always one nation or another who subdued their neighbors. One can safely say, not one nation every survived indefinitely being in control and power over others very long.
THE ROMAN EMPIRE was no exception. After the young OCTAVIAN defeated his colleague ANTONY and ANTONY'S ally CLEOPATRA, the ROMAN EMPIRE was now completely in the hands of one man. Being in command of the financial resources of ROME and of the army he had no real enemies. At the height of his power , SPAIN, FRANCE, ITALY, GREECE, ASIA MINOR, SYRIA, PALESTINE AND NORTH AFRICA were under his command. During his reign tremendous advances were accomplished. For over 20 years of peace, ROME experienced prosperity which it never seen before. Roads were built all over the ROMAN controlled EMPIRE. No one but the GERMANS dared to stand up to this EMPEROR. He was not satisfied just to be EMPEROR, but at the death of MARCUS AERNILIUS LEPIDUS took over the post of CHIEF PRIEST. He implied that he was "DEVINE", however he was not proclaimed "GOD" until after his death.
Immediately after his death trouble started. He was succeeded by four rulers - TIBERIUS, CALIGULA, CLAUDIUS and NERO. After the suicide of NERO there were no fewer than four EMPERORS in one year - GALBA, OTHO, VITELLIUS and VESPASIAN. During the rule of VESPASIAN a new surge of power developed involving more wars. In 70 A.D. TITUS ( the son of VESPASIAN) captured JERUSALEM and destroyed the temple. TITUS restored some stability but the Glory of the age of AUGUSTUS was not regained until the reign of ANTONINUS PIUS and his successors, between A.D. 138 and 180. This splendid period came to an end with the assassination of COMMODUS in 192. Once again a struggle for power resulted in the rapid succession of EMPERORS, most who met violent ends. Successions and murders were the common thing in that period. The ROMAN EMPIRE was declining which was aided by the constant struggle for power. This situation did not go by unnoticed by the nations under the control of ROME. ROMAN authority reached it's lowest ebb in 260 A.D.
Over the years, while the western part of the ROMAN EMPIRE, began to fall apart, the eastern part did not follow this pattern. The east of the ROMAN EMPIRE did not face the constant raids of its neighbors and therefore enjoyed a relative steady trade. In order to stop the decline the EMPEROR imposed heavy taxes which had disastrous results and ended in economic collapse. Widespread poverty and misery followed. As always the lower class citizens suffered the most. In their distress they were looking for comfort in the newly discovered religion "CHRISTIANITY". Since the gospel of CHRISTIANITY preached kindliness, its sympathy for the poor was particular attractive to the general public. This was the time when CHRISTIANITY really took off. CHRISTIANITY spread so fast, that the EMPEROR used the newly found religion as a distraction from his own problems. He and others who followed him, started and perfected the persecution of the CHRISTIANS. Shortly after the ROMAN EMPIRE was divided into two major parts. CONSTANTINE seized power from his colleague in the East - LICINIUS - and again brought the ROMAN EMPIRE to a new height. He was supposed to be a great man, but he made two mistakes:
After his death, his three sons divided the EMPIRE again and new power struggles started which was the beginning of the end of the ROMAN EMPIRE.Other nations as the Visigoth, Ostrogoth and Goth, together with the Huns started to turn their attention toward the ROMAN empire. A revolt in 365 in Constantinople against the Emperor of the East was overthrown by the arrival of the Eastern (ROMAN) army from Syria.
The Huns began to move from the east of the Caspian Sea, moving westwards defeated in 375 the Visigoth on the banks of the Dniester. This event pushed the Visigoth farther to the west. They then requested to enter the Eastern Part of the ROMAN empire to be part of the ROMAN empire.The Roman Emperor decided to grant their request in the hope that they would be welcome recruits and would occupy the empty territories. As they were former enemies, this was a risky decision. Since the agreement was that they would have to give up their weapons, the ROMAN emperor did not see any possible disadvantage to his cause. As it turned out soon afterwards, the people who asked for asylum turned against ROME. They and others combined to defeat the ROMAN armies. VALENS, the ROMAN emperor, called on his troops from other theaters. He also called on his nephew GRATIAN to join him with his army. VALENS, did not wait for the arrival of GRATIAN and was defeated. While the eastern part of the empire flourished for many hundreds of years to come, the west crumbled under the onslaught of the enemies around.
The very end came, when the young boy-emperor ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS , elected in 475, was captured in the following year at Ravenna, by KING ODOVACAR, a GERMAN military leader, who became KING of ITALY. It was ironic that the last EMPEROR of the once mighty ROMAN EMPIRE, bore the same name as the founder of the city of ROME.
About 480 B.C. a huge Persian army moved toward Europe. The design of this military expansion was to get rid of the troublesome Athenians and Spartans. Xerxes, who was the new Persian King did continue his fathers (Darius)plans to annex more land to Persia. The last engagement between Persian troops and the Greeks was about 10 years earlier, 480 B.C. This battle was a shameful defeat for the Persians. Now, Xerxes, the newly crowned King was going to show his might and wipe the small independent Greek States off the map.
The battles of Salamis and Plataca in 480 and 479 B.C. were of the greatest importance in world history. Had the Persians won this war, the world would have become a Persian Empire, with an Asian civilization. By 484 B.C. Xerxes was ready to deal the final blow to the Greek states.
This PERSIAN King accumulated a formidable armada of thousands of ships. The many separate Greek kingdoms were not united in fighting the agressor. One by one they were overrun and the land and people captured.
Because of his mighty superior force, the PERSIAN King felt overconfident and fell into a trap which was sprung by the smaller, but heavier armed GREEK Navy. A mighty battle - September 23. 480 BC brought victory of the GREEK forces over the PERSIAN navy. The PERSIAN land forces were will intact and forged forward. They took Athens but were defeated on August 27. 479 B.C. This was the final and decisive Battle of "PLATAEA" which forced the remains of the PERSIAN army to retreat steadily and soon left the European continent all together.
The two battles, one on the sea and one on land broke the PERSIAN empire, leading eventually to it's complete ruin. At the same time the prestige of the GREEK Nation blossomed and started the GREEK Nation on it's amazing course of Civilization. A great future for the GREEK nation was ahead and set their marks for future centuries to come.
Although the Christian Religion had survived in this part of the world, it came at a price. Mohammed laid down the law that all conquered people were to be offered two alternatives - conversion to Islam or death. Exempted were among others CHRISTIANS. There were certain restrictions, they could not carry any weapons, ride horses, could not convert Moslems and also could not marry Moslem women.
As a credit to the Moslem authorities it has to be said that they did not touch the holy places of the Christians but at the same time they were not allowed to build new places of worship. The Christian community was left to adjudicate themselves. If there was any dispute their own priests would be held responsible.
In the year of 1004, Hakim, the Caliph of Cairo suddenly turned against the Christians and decided to annihilate them. He ordered some Church property to be destroyed, but when he declared himself to be "GOD" he was considered insane.
Slowly , but surely, the Turks had been overrunning the East, the Holy roman Empire shrank and had internal difficulties as well. Roman Emperors at that time faced a great dilemma, firstly because the Nobility had the power to install or remove the Emperor, secondly the Pope's had gained so much power, both in religion and secular, that in the end the crowning or dismissing of an Emperor was decided by the Pope's in Rome. This situation was made worse when there were 2 or more Pope's reigning at the same time. This was the case during the reign of Henry IV, King of Germany (1056 - 1106) , two or more Pope's were fighting for supreme power. As each Pope (legitimate or otherwise) and the Emperors had their own supporters, there were constantly two warring factions.
Circumstances appealed to Pope Urban II.(1042? - 1099)to contemplate aggressive action against the turks. His goal was to liberate the Holy places from the control of the Turks. The oppression of the Christian church in Jerusalem and the sufferings of the pilgrims to the Holy Places influenced greatly the decision to a military expedition toward the Holy Land. The Pope and his council at Clermont in France made this decision without the help of Henry IV, William rufus of England, Philip of France and the Rulers of Spain who were busy fighting the Moors.
The Bishops formulated the rules for the expedition to the Holy Land. While the Knights were crusading, the Bishops would protect their property. they would take a vow to fight their way to Jerusalem; if they got there or were killed in the effort, all their sins would be forgiven; if they turned back, they would be excommunicated. After all the preparations were done, more than 30,000 Knights and their followers were ready to begin their crusade from Constantinople toward the East. As the crusade was poorly organized, the Turks defeated this Christian Force at Nicaea. This, however, did not prevent the Christians to resume their Holy War and in 1097 a better organized army was again ready to penetrate Asia Minor. In the Year 1098 Antioch was captured and in the year 1099 Jerusalem fell into the hands of the Christians.
In the year of 1144 the Turks again started hostilities which prompted the second Crusade, headed by King Louis VII. of France and the Emperor Conrad III., resulting into a fiasco.
A third crusade was lead by Frederick Barbarossa (1123-1190). After his death his force disintegrated. Between 1202 and 1270 four more Crusades were organized, resulting in nothing and finally the European Monarchs decided that the conquest of Egypt and Palestine was not a practicable proposition. If these crusades had any results at all, they were the acquaintance with the Eastern culture which enlarged the mental horizons of many of the more intelligent Crusaders. New foods, exotic fruits, new plants, clothing and tools found their way into the western hemisphere.
The primary objectives of the crusades were a failure, but they had an important bearing on the development of europe over the next two or three centuries.
In the treaty arranged at the end of the Third Crusade (1192) it was stipulated that all hostilities between the Christians and the Moslems should cease. The Fourth Crusade (1196-1197), which is sometimes considered merely as a movement supplementary to the Third, forced renewed hostilities, against the wishes of the Palestine Christians, who preferred that the three-years' peace should continue. The Fourth Crusade ended disastrously, those who remained longest to prosecute it being finally cut to pieces at Jaffa in 1197.The travellers returning to the West from Syria besought immediate help for the Christian survivors there. The Byzantine empire had fallen into decrepitude, and the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was reduced to a mere strip of coast. Only by prompt action could it be hoped to save any portion of it from complete wreck.
Innocent III, who became pope in 1198, well understood the meaning of the Moslem triumphs. The four crusades had already greatly extended the papal jurisdiction, and Innocent himself was the moving spirit of the Fifth, although an ignorant priest named Fulk also preached it with a success almost equal to that of Peter the Hermit in the first expedition. Vast numbers of warriors took the cross, though no king and only a few minor princes joined them. Most famous among the leaders were Boniface II, Marquis of Montferrat, and Baldwin IV, Count of Flanders. Venice joined the crusaders under the lead of her doge, Henry Dandolo, then more than ninety years old. When ambassador at the Byzantine court (1173) he was blinded by order of the emperor Manuel I, and revenge was probably one of the motives which took him again to the East. The Venetians, being asked to transport the crusaders, demanded an extortionate price; but as Venice was the only power possessing the necessary ships, a contract was made with her for the service in 1201. Immediately the Venetians, by a secret treaty with Egypt, for the sake of commercial privileges, betrayed the crusaders to the Moslems. Embarkation from Venice in the summer of 1202 was made very difficult, and many intending crusaders went home in disgust. Still Venice insisted upon the full price; but money to pay it was wanting; and in spite of the Pope and many of the bitter spirits, a bargain was struck-the crusaders agreed to help the Venetians in taking and plundering Zara, a rival Christian city on the eastern coast of the Adriatic. Zara was accordingly captured-ultimately to be destroyed by the Venetians, who next drew some of the crusaders into a plot to overthrow the Byzantine emperor Alexius IV, and place his son on the throne. By this means the Venetians thought to make good their promise to frustrate the crusade, and at the same time to obtain great commercial advantages at Constantinople. Thus was the pilgrim host "changed from a crusading army into a filibustering expedition."
Having wintered at Zara, the crusaders were landed, in June, 1203, under the walls of Constantinople. The emperor was deposed by his own people, and his son, Alexius V, crowned during a revolution in the city, which followed an unsuccessful attack by the crusaders in July. The second and successful assault, in April, 1204, with its sequel of pillage and debauchery, forms the subject of Pears' brilliant narrative. The city, during these troubles, suffered from two fires, of which the second, in July, 1203, deserves to be reckoned among the great historic conflagrations of the world.
The preparations which the leaders had been pushing on during several weeks were completed in April, 1204, and that day was chosen for an assault upon Constantinople. Instead of attacking simultaneously a portion of the harbor walls and a portion of the landward walls, Venetians and crusaders alike directed their efforts against the defences on the side of the harbor. The horses were embarked once more in the huissiers. The line of battle was drawn up; the huissiers and galleys in front, the transports a little behind and alternating between the huissiers and the galleys. The whole length of the line of battle was upward of half a league, and stretched from the Blachern to beyond the Petrion. The Emperor's vermilion tent had been pitched on the hill just beyond the district of the Petrion, where he could see the ships when they came immediately under the walls. Before him was the district which had been devastated by the fire.
On the morning of the 9th the ships, drawn up in the order described, passed over from the north to the south side of the harbor. The crusaders landed in many places, and attacked from a narrow strip of the land between the walls and the water. Then the assault began in terrible earnest along the whole line. Amid the din of the imperial trumpets and drums the attackers endeavored to undermine the walls, while others kept up a continual rain of arrows, bolts, and stones. The ships had been covered with blanks and skins so as to defend them from the stones and from the famous Greek fire, and, thus protected, pushed boldly up to the walls. The transports soon advanced to the front, and were able to get so near the walls that the attacking parties on the gangways or platforms, flung out once more from the ships' tops, were able to cross lances with the defenders of the walls and towers.
The attack took place at upward of a hundred points until noon, or, according to Nicetas, until evening. Both parties fought well. The invaders were repulsed. Those who had landed were driven back, and amid the shower of stones were unable to remain on shore. The invaders lost more than the defenders. Before night a portion of the vessels had retired out of range of the mangonels, while another portion remained at anchor and continued to keep up a continual fire against those on the walls. The first day's attack had failed.
The leaders of both crusaders and Venetians withdrew their forces to the Galata side. The assault had failed, and it became necessary at once to determine upon their next step. The same evening a parliament was hastily called together. Some advised that the next attack should be made on the walls on the Marmora side, which were not so strong as those facing the Golden Horn. The Venetians, however, immediately took an exception, which everyone who knew Constantinople would at once recognize as unanswerable. On that side the current is always much too strong to allow vessels to be anchored with any amount of steadiness or even safety. There were some present who would have been very well content that the current or a wind - no matter what - should have dispersed the vessels, provided that they themselves could have left the country and have gone on their way.
It was at length decided that the two following days, the 10th and 11th, should be devoted to repairing their damages, and that a second assault should be delivered on the 12th. The previous day was a Sunday, and Boniface and Dandolo made use of it to appease the discontent in the rank and file of the army. The bishops and abbots were set to work to preach against the Greeks. They urged that the war was just; that the Greeks had been disobedient to Rome, and had perversely been guilty of schism in refusing to recognize the supremacy of the Pope, and that Innocent himself desired the union of the two churches. They saw in the defeat the vengeance of God on account of the sins of the crusaders. The loose women were ordered out of the camp, and, for better security, were shipped and sent far away. Confession and communion were enjoined, and, in short, all that the clergy could do was done to prove that the cause was just, to quiet the discontented, and to occupy them until the attack next day.
The warriors had in the mean time been industriously repairing their ships and their machines of war. A slight, but not unimportant, change of tactics had been suggested by the assault on the 9th. Each transport had been assigned to a separate tower. The number of men who could fight from the gangways or platforms thrown out from the tops had been found insufficient to hold their own against the defenders. The modified plan was, therefore, to lash together, opposite each tower to be attacked, two ships, containing gangways to be thrown out from their tops, and thus concentrate a greater force against each tower. Probably, also, the line of attack was considerably shorter than at the first assault.
On Monday morning, the 12th, the assault was renewed. The tent of the Emperor had been pitched near the monastery of Pantepoptis, one of many which were in the district of the Petrion, extending along the Golden Horn from the palace of Blachern, about one-fourth of its length. From this position he could see all the movements of the fleet. The walls were covered with men who were ready again to fight under the eye of their Emperor. The assault commenced at dawn, and continued with the utmost fierceness. Every available crusader and Venetian took part in it. Each little group of ships had its own special portion of the walls, with its towers, to attack. The besiegers during the first portion of the day made little progress, but a strong north wind sprang up, which enabled the vessels to get nearer the land than they had previously been. Two of the transports, the Pilgrim and the Parvis, lashed together, succeeded in throwing one of their gangways across to a tower in the Petrion, and opposite the position occupied by the Emperor.
A Venetian, and a French knight, Andre d'Urboise, immediately rushed across and obtained a foothold. They were at once followed by others, who fought so well that the defenders of the tower were either killed or fled. The example gave new courage to the invaders. The knights who were in the huissiers, as soon as they saw what had been done, leaped on shore, placed their ladders against the wall, and shortly captured four towers. Those on board the fleet concentrated their efforts on the gates, broke in three of them, and entered the city, while others landed their horses from the huissiers. As soon as a company of knights was formed, they entered the city through one of these gates, and charged for the Emperor's camp. Mourtzouphlos had drawn up his troops before his tents, but they were unused to contend with men in heavy armor, and after a fairly obstinate resistance the imperial troops fled. The Emperor, says Nicetas - who is certainly not inclined to unduly praise the Emperor, who had deprived him of his post of grand logothete - did his best to rally his troops, but all in vain, and he had to retreat toward the palace of the Lion's Mouth. The number of the wounded and dead was sans fin et sans mesure.
An indiscriminate slaughter commenced. The invaders spared neither age nor sex. In order to render themselves safe they set fire to the city lying to the east of them, and burned everything between the monastery of Everyetis and the quarter known as Droungarios. So extensive was the fire, which burned all night and until the next evening, that, according to the marshal, more houses were destroyed than there were in the three largest cities in France. The tents of the Emperor and the imperial palace of Blachern were pillaged, the conquerors making their head-quarters on the same site at Pantepoptis. It was evening, and already late, when the crusaders had entered the city, and it was impossible for them to continue their work of destruction through the night. They therefore encamped near the walls and towers which they had captured. Baldwin of Flanders spent the night in the vermilion tent of the Emperor, his brother Henry in front of the palace of Blachern, Boniface, the Marquis of Montferrat, on the other side of the imperial tents in the heart of the city.
The city was already taken. The inhabitants were at length awakened out of the dream of security into which seventeen unsuccessful attempts to capture the New Rome had lulled them. Every charm, pagan and Christian, had been without avail. The easy sloth into which the possession of innumerable relics, and the consciousness of being under the protection of an army of saints and martyrs, had plunged a large part of the inhabitants, had been rudely dispelled. The Panhagia of the Blachern, with its relic of the Virgin's robe, the host of heads, arms, bodies, and vestments of saints and of portions of the holy Cross, had been of no more use than the palladium which lay buried then, as now, under the great column which Constantine had built. The rough energy of the Westerns had disregarded the talismans of the Greek Church as completely as those of paganism. In vain had the believers in these charms destroyed during the siege the statues which were believed to be of ill omen or unlucky. The invaders had a superstition as deep as their own, but with the difference that they could not believe that a people in schism could have the protection of the hierarchy of heaven, or be regarded as the rightful possessors of so many relics.
During the night following its capture the Golden Gate, which was at the Marmora side of the landward walls, had been opened, and already an affrighted crowd was pressing forward to make its escape from the captured city. Others were doing their best to bury their treasures. The Emperor himself, either seized with panic or finding that all was lost - as, indeed, everything was lost so soon as the army had succeeded in obtaining a foothold within the walls - fled from the city. He, too, escaped by the Golden Gate, taking with him Euphrosyne, the widow of Alexis. The brave Theodore Lascaris determined, however, to make one more attempt. His appeal to the people was useless. Those who were not panic-stricken appear to have been indifferent. Some, at least, were apparently still dreaming of a mere change of rulers, like those of which the majority of them had seen several. But before any attempt at reorganization could be made the enemy was in sight, and Theodore himself had to fly.
The crusaders had expected another day's fighting, and knew nothing of the flight of Mourtzouphlos. To their surprise they encountered no resistance. The day was occupied in taking possession of their conquest. The Byzantine troops laid down their arms on receiving assurances of personal safety. The Italians who had been expelled took advantage of the entry of their friends and appear to have retaliated upon the population for their expulsion. Two thousand of the inhabitants, says Gunther, were killed, and mostly by these returned Italians. As the victorious crusaders passed through the streets, women, old men, and children, who had been unable to flee, met them, and, placing one finger over another so as to make the sign of the cross, hailed the Marquis of Montferrat as king, while a hastily gathered procession, with the cross and the sacred emblems of Christ, greeted him in triumph.
Then began the plunder of the city. The imperial treasury and the arsenal were placed under guard; but with these exceptions the right to plunder was given indiscriminately to the troops and sailors. Never in Europe was a work of pillage more systematically and shamelessly carried out. Never by the army of a Christian state was there a more barbarous sack of a city than that perpetrated by these soldiers of Christ, sworn to chastity, pledged before God not to shed Christian blood, and bearing upon them the emblem of the Prince of Peace. Reciting the crimes committed by the crusaders, Nicetas says, with indignation: "You have taken up the cross, and have sworn on it and on the holy Gospels to us that you would pass over the territory of Christians without shedding blood-and without turning to the right hand or to the left. You told us that you had taken up arms against the Saracens only, and that you would steep them in their blood alone. You promised to keep yourselves chaste while you bore the cross, as became soldiers enrolled under the banner of Christ. Instead of defending his tomb, you have outraged the faithful who are members of him. You have used Christians worse than the Arabs used the Latins, for they at least respected women."
An immense mass of treasure was found in each of the imperial palaces and in those of the nobles. Each baron took possession of the castle or palace which was allotted to him, and put a guard upon the treasure which he found there. "Never since the world was created," says the marshal, "was there so much booty gained in one city. Each man took the house which pleased him, and there were enough for all. Those who were poor found themselves suddenly rich. There was captured an immense supply of gold and silver, of plate and of precious stones, of satins and of silk, of furs, and of every kind of wealth ever found upon earth."
The sack of the richest city in Christendom, which had been the bribe offered to the crusaders to violate their oaths, was made in the spirit of men who, having once broken through the trammels of their vows, are reckless to what lengths they go. Their abstinence and their chastity once abandoned, they plunged at once into orgies of every kind.
The lust of the army spared neither maiden nor the virgin dedicated to God. Violence and debauchery were everywhere present; cries and lamentations and the groans of the victims were heard throughout the city; for everywhere pillage was unrestrained and lust unbridled. The city was in wild confusion. Nobles, old men, women, and children ran to and fro trying to save their wealth, their honor, and their lives. Knights, foot soldiers, and Venetian sailors jostled each other in a mad scramble for plunder. Threats of ill-treatment, promises of safety if wealth were disgorged, mingled with the cries of many sufferers. These "pious brigands," as Gunther aptly calls them, acted as if they had received a license to commit every crime. Sword in hand, houses and churches were pillaged. Every insult was offered to the religion of the conquered citizens. Churches and monasteries were the richest storehouses, and were therefore the first buildings to be rifled.
Monks and priests were selected for insult. The priests' robes were placed by the crusaders on their horses. The icons were ruthlessly torn down from the screens or were broken. The sacred buildings were ransacked for relics or their beautiful caskets. The chalices were stripped of their precious stones and converted into drinking-cups. The sacred plate was heaped with ordinary plunder. The altar cloths and the screens of cloth of gold, richly embroidered and bejeweled, were torn down, and either divided among the troops or destroyed for the sake of the gold and silver which were woven into them. The altars of Hagia Sophia, which had been the admiration of all men, were broken for the sake of the material of which they were made. Horses and mules were taken into the church in order to carry off the loads of sacred vessels and the gold and silver plates of the throne, the pulpits, and the doors, and the beautiful ornaments of the church. The soldiers made the chief church of Christendom the scene of their profanity. A prostitute was seated in the patriarchal chair, who danced, and sang a ribald song for the amusement of the soldiers.
Nicetas, in speaking of the desecration of the Great Church, writes with the utmost indignation of the barbarians who were incapable of appreciating and therefore respecting its beauty. To him it was an "earthly heaven, a throne of divine magnificence, an image of the firmament created by the Almighty." The plunder of the same church in 1453 by Mahomet II compares favorably with that made by the crusaders of 1204.
The sack of the city went on during the three days after the capture. An order was issued, probably on the third day, by the leaders of the army, for the protection of women. Three bishops had pronounced excommunication against all who should pillage church or convent. It was many days, however, before the army could be reduced to its ordinary condition of discipline. A proclamation was made throughout the army that all the booty should be collected, in order to be divided fairly among the captors. Three churches were selected as depots, and trusty guards of crusaders and Venetians were stationed to watch what was thus brought in. Much, however, was kept back, and much stolen. Stern measures had to be resorted to before order was restored. Many crusaders were hanged. The Count of St. Paul hanged one of his own knights with his shield round his neck because he had not given up the booty he had captured. A contemporary writer, the continuator of the history of William of Tyre, forcibly contrasts the conduct of the crusaders before and after the capture. When the Latins would take Constantinople they held the shield of God before them. It was only when they had entered that they threw it away, and covered themselves with the shield of the devil.
The Italians resident in Constantinople, who had returned to the city with their countrymen, were conspicuous in their hostility to the Greeks. Amid this resentment there were examples, however, that former friendships were not forgotten. The escape of Nicetas himself is an illustration in point. He had held the position of grand logothete, but he had been deposed by Mourtzouphlos. When the Latins entered the city he had retired to a small house near Hagia Sophia, which was so situated as to be likely to escape observation. His large house, and probably his official residence, which he is careful to tell us was adorned with an abundant store of ornaments, had been burned down in the second fire. Many of his friends found refuge with him, apparently regarding his dwelling as specially adapted for concealment. Nothing, however, could escape the observation of the horde which was now ransacking every corner. When the Italians had been banished from the city Nicetas had sheltered a Venetian merchant, with his wife and family. This man now clothed himself like a soldier and, pretending that he was one of the invaders, prevented his countrymen or any other Latins from entering the house. For some time he was successful, but at length a crowd, principally of French soldiers, pushed past and flocked within. From that time protection became impossible.
n the morning of the 9th the ships, drawn up in the order described, passed over from the north to the south side of the harbor. The crusaders landed in many places, and attacked from a narrow strip of the land between the walls and the water. Then the assault began in terrible earnest along the whole line. Amid the din of the imperial trumpets and drums the attackers endeavored to undermine the walls, while others kept up a continual rain of arrows, bolts, and stones. The ships had been covered with blanks and skins so as to defend them from the stones and from the famous Greek fire, and, thus protected, pushed boldly up to the walls. The transports soon advanced to the front, and were able to get so near the walls that the attacking parties on the gangways or platforms, flung out once more from the ships' tops, were able to cross lances with the defenders of the walls and towers.
The Venetian advised Nicetas to leave, in order to prevent himself from being imprisoned and to save the honor of his daughters. Nicetas and his friends accepted the advice. Having clothed themselves in skins or the poorest garments, they were conducted through the city by their faithful friend as if they were his prisoners. The girls and young ladies of the party were placed in their midst, their faces having been intentionally smeared in order to give them the appearance of being of the poorest class. As they reached the Golden Gate the daughter of a magistrate, who was one of the party, was suddenly seized and carried off by a crusader. Her father, who was weak and old, and wearied with the long walk, fell, and was unable to do anything but cry for assistance. Nicetas followed and called the attention of certain soldiers who were passing, and after a long and piteous appeal, after reminding them of the proclamation which had been made against the violation of women, he ultimately succeeded in saving the maiden. The entreaties would have been in vain if the leader of the party had not at length threatened to hang the offender. A few minutes later the fugitives had passed out of the city, and fell on their knees to thank God for his protection in having permitted them to escape with their lives. Then they set out on their weary way to Silivria. The road was covered with fellow-sufferers. Before them was the Patriarch himself, "without bag or money, or stick or shoes, with but one coat," says Nicetas, "like a true apostle, or rather like a true follower of Jesus Christ, in that he was seated on an ass, with the difference that instead of entering the new Zion in triumph he was leaving it."
A large part of the booty had been collected in the three churches designated for that purpose. The marshal himself tells us that much was stolen which never came into the general mass. The stores which had been collected were, however, divided in accordance with the compact which had been made before the capture. The Venetians and the crusaders each took half. Out of the moiety belonging to the army there were paid the fifty thousand silver marks due to the Venetians. Two foot sergeants received as much as one horse sergeant, and two of the latter sergeants received as much as a knight. Exclusive of what was stolen and of what was paid to the Venetians, there were distributed among the army four hundred thousand marks, or eight hundred thousand pounds, and ten thousand suits of armor. The total amount distributed among the crusaders and Venetians shows that the wealth of Constantinople had not been exaggerated. Eight hundred thousand pounds were given to the crusaders, a like sum to the Venetians, with the one hundred thousand pounds due to them. These sums had been collected in hard cash from a city where the inhabitants were hostile, and where they had in their wells and cisterns an easy means of hiding their treasures of gold, silver, and precious stones - a means traditionally well known in the East. Abundance of booty was taken possession of by the troops which never went into the general mass. Sismondi estimates that the wealth in specie and movable property before the capture was not less than twenty-four million pounds sterling.
The distribution was made during the latter end of April. Many works of art in bronze were sent to the melting-pot to be coined. Many statues were broken up in order to obtain the metals with which they were adorned. The conquerors knew nothing and cared nothing for the art which had added value to the metal. The weight of the bronze was to them the only question of interest. The works of art which they destroyed were sacrificed not to any sentiment like that of the Moslem against images which they believed to be idols or talismans. No such excuse can be made for the Christians of the West. Their motive for destroying so much that was valuable was neither fanaticism nor religion. It was the simple greed for gain. No sentiment restrained their cupidity. The great statue of the Virgin which ornamented the Taurus was sent as unhesitatingly to the furnace as the figure of Hercules. No object was sufficiently sacred, none sufficiently beautiful, to be worth saving if it could be converted into cash. Amid so much that was destroyed it is impossible that there were not a considerable number of works of art of the best periods. The one list which has been left us by the Greek logothete professes to give account of only the larger statues which were sent to the melting-pot. But it is worth while to note what were these principal objects so destroyed.
We have seen that to Nicetas, who knew and loved it in its best days, it was a model of celestial beauty, a glimpse of heaven itself. To the more sober English observer, "its mosaic of marble slabs of various patterns and beautiful colors, the domes, roofs, and curved surfaces, with gold-grounded mosaic relieved by figures or architectural devices," are "wonderfully grand and pleasing." All that St. Mark's is to Venice, Hagia Sophia was to Constantinople. But St. Mark's, though enriched with some of the spoils of its great original, is, as to its interior at least, a feeble copy. Hagia Sophia justified its founder in declaring, "I have surpassed thee, O Solomon!" and during seven centuries after Justinian his successors had each attempted to add to its wealth and its decoration. Yet this, incomparably the most beautiful church in Christendom, at the opening of the thirteenth century was stripped and plundered of every ornament which could be carried away. It appeared to the indignant Greeks that the very stones would be torn from the walls by these intruders, to whom nothing was sacred.
A beautiful equestrian statue of great size, representing either Bellerophon and Pegasus or, as the populace believe, Joshua on horseback commanding the sun to stand still, was likewise sent to the furnace. The horse appeared to be neighing at the sound of the trumpet, while every muscle was strained with the ardor of battle. The colossal Hercules of Lysippus, which, having adorned Tarentum, had thence been transported to the Elder and subsequently to the hippodrome of the New Rome, met with a like fate. The artist had expressed, in a manner which had won the admiration of beholders, the deep wrath of the hero at the unworthy tasks set before him. He was represented as seated, but without quiver or bow or club. His lion's skin was thrown loosely about his shoulders, his right foot and right hand stretched out to the utmost, while he rested his head on his left hand with his elbow on his bent knee. The whole figure was full of dignity; the chest deep, the shoulders broad, the hair curly, the arms and limbs full of muscle.
The pillage of the relics of Constantinople lasted for forty years. More than half of the total amount of objects carried off were, however, taken away between the years 1204 and 1208. During the few days which followed the capture of the city the bishops and priests who were with the crusaders were active in laying hands on this species of sacred spoil; and the statement of a contemporary writer is not improbable, that the priests of the orthodox Church preferred to surrender such spoil to those of their own cloth rather than to the rough soldier or the rougher Venetian sailor. On the other hand, the highest priestly dignitaries in the army - men, even, who refused to take of the earthly spoil - were eager to obtain possession of this sacred booty, and unscrupulous as to the means by which they obtained it. The holy Cross was carefully divided by the bishops for distribution among the barons. Gunther gives us a specimen of the means to which Abbot Martin, who had the German crusaders placed under his charge, had recourse. The abbot had learned that many relics had been hidden by the Greeks in a particular church. This building was attacked in the general pillage. He, as a priest, searched carefully for the relics, while the soldiers were looking for more commonplace booty. The abbot found an old priest, with the long hair and beard common then, as now, to orthodox ecclesiastics, and roughly addressed him, "Show me your relics, or you are a dead man." The old priest, seeing that he was addressed by one of his own profession, and frightened probably by the threat, thought, says Gunther, that it was better to give up the relics to him than to the profane and blood-stained hands of the soldiers. He opened an iron safe, and the abbot, in his delight at the sight, buried his hands in the precious store. He and his chaplain filled their surplices, and ran with all haste to the harbor to conceal their prize. That they were successful in keeping it during the stormy days which followed could only be attributed to the virtue of the relics themselves.
The way in which Dalmatius de Sergy obtained the head of St. Clement is an illustration of the crusader's belief that the acquisition of a relic and its transport to the West would be allowed as a compensation for the fulfilment of the crusader's vow. That knight was grievously afflicted that he could not go to the Holy Land, and earnestly prayed God to show him how he could execute some other task equivalent to that which he had sworn, but failed, to accomplish. His first thought was to take relics to his own country. He consulted the two cardinals who were then in Constantinople, who approved his idea, but charged him not to buy these relics, because their purchase and sale were forbidden. He accordingly determined to steal them, if such a word may be applied to an act which was clearly regarded as praiseworthy. The knight, in order to discover something of especial value, remained in Constantinople until Palm Sunday in the following year. A French priest pointed out to him a church in which the head of St. Clement was preserved. He went there in the company of a Cistercian monk and asked to see the relics. While one kept the persons in charge speaking with him, the other stole a portion of the relic. On leaving, the knight was disgusted to find that the whole head had not been taken, and, on the pretext that he had left his gauntlet behind, a companion regained admittance to the church, while the knight again kept the monk in charge in conversation at the door. Dalmatius went to the chest behind the altar where the relic had been kept, stole the remainder, went out, mounted his horse and rode away. The head was placed with pious joy in the chapel of his house. He returned, disguised, some days after to the church, in order, as he pretended, to do reverence to the relic - in order really to ascertain that he had taken the right head, for there had been two in the chest. He was informed that the head of St. Clement had been stolen. Then, being satisfied as to its authenticity, he took a vow that he would give the relic to the Church of Cluny in case he should arrive safely. He embarked. The devil, from jealousy, sent a hurricane, but the tears and prayers before the relic defeated him, and the knight arrived safely home. The monks of Cluny received the precious treasure with every demonstration of reverent joy, and in the fullest confidence that they had secured the perpetual intercession of St. Clement on behalf of themselves and those who did honor to his head. The relics most sought after were those which related to the events mentioned in the New Testament, especially to the infancy, life, and passion of Christ, and to the saints popular in the West.
This great GREEK physician said (hundreds of years ahead of his time) "TREAT THE PATIENT, NOT THE DISEASE!"
When and where did modern Medicine go wrong ?
HIPPOCRATES allegedly said: THE FACTORS which enable us to distinguish between diseases are as follows: First we must consider the nature of man in general and of each individual, and the characteristics of each disease, Then, we must consider the patient, what food is given to him and who gives it - for this may make it easier for him to take or more difficult - the conditions of climate and locality both in general and in particular, the patient's customs mode of life, pursuits and age. Then we must consider his speech, his mannerisms, his silences, his thoughts, his habits of sleep or wakefulness and his dreams, their nature and time. Next, we must note whether he plucks his hair, scratches or weeps. We must observe his paroxysms, his stools, urine, sputum and vomit. We look for any change in the state of the malady, how often such changes occur, and their nature, and the particular change which induces death or a crisis. Observe, too, sweating, shivering, chill, cough, sneezing, hiccough, the kind of breathing, belching, and, whether silent or noisy, hemorrhages and hemorrhoids. We must determine the significance of all these signs.
These words, which SHOULD have been written in the 20th century, were in fact set out by the GREEK physician HIPPOCRATES in the fifth century B.C. They are words no DOCTOR should forget!. HIPPOCRATES knew that a disease cannot be treated as a thing BY ITSELF!! The same disease, in two different bodies, might run two very different courses, the same disease need two very different treatments.
My own personal comment: "Anyone who had the misfortune to be wrongly diagnosed by a physician will know the consequences."
HIPPOCRATES was born in 460 B.C. on the Island of COS,(1) A GREEK Island. He traveled a great deal, in GREECE and abroad, learning while he traveled. He devoted his life to healing the sick and studying people and their customs. He died in 375 B.C. and the age of Eighty-five. He truly was one of the great Human beings of his time.
What can we learn from this great man and Physician ?. Two and a half thousand years ago he emphasized : IT IS MORE IMPORTANT TO PREVENT THE PATIENT'S ILLNESS THAN TO CURE HIM. THERE ARE BETTER THINGS TO DO WITH LIFE THAN RECOVER! Can you imagine what the shares of the Drug companies would be worth if our beloved Doctors would prevent illness instead of pushing the wares of the Drug companies ?
(1)COS, also KOS is an Island of southeast Greece in the northern Dodecaneses Islands at the entrance to the Gulf of KOS, an inlet of the Aegean Sea on the southwest coast of Turkey. Hippocrates founded a medical school on the Island in the fifth century B.C.
One of the most familiar sights of ATHENS was the figure of SOCRATES, the Philosopher. A very modest man himself, he spend most of his life trying to learn from others what makes them tick. He pretended to be of modest knowledge, yet he was recognized and appreciated among the intellectuals as a very wise man, a philosopher.
SOCRATES was born in 470 B.C. As it turned out, he was ahead of his time and was more thinking as a citizen of the world than necessarily about his own homeland. While he forever taught the youth of his homeland about the finer things in life, his contemporary, orthodox Athenians considered him to be a traitor. His views were not widely accepted by those who had a pre-conceived idea what the world should be like. One day, he was arrested and accused of treason. In the year 399 B.C. he was charged with impiety and corrupting the youth of Athens. He defended himself ably, but the majority of his judges voted against him. His sentence was death. Rather than accepting the offer to flee the country, he stayed and a month after the trial drank poison. In the short time prior to his death he mentioned to his friends:" We go our ways, I to die, you to live. Which is better, God only knows."
With the group of friends being present during the last hours of the life of SOCRATES one of his favorite students - PLATO - vowed to continue the teachings of the great SOCRATES. PLATO was determined to keep on to carry the mission of his master and mentor. He knew that without the influence of SOCRATES he himself would never have reached the height of wisdom he possessed at the time of the death of SOCRATES.
PLATO was about twenty-eight at the time of death of SOCRATES. He felt such a dismay about the loss of his friend that he decided to leave Athens and travel to foreign lands. He ended up in Sicily and immediately went into trouble with the authorities. His free speech was a threat to the ruling monarch and he was forced to retreat to Athens. He taught in the Academy of Athens (without pay). From 386 B.C. until his death at the age of eighty-one in 347 B.C. he continuously taught in Athens.
The influence which PLATO has had on all subsequent philosophies down to the present time can only be estimated by considering the many thinkers and poets of all ages who have drawn inspiration from him.
ARISTOTLE was born in 384 B.C., two years after PLATO began teaching in Athens. His father was the physician to the Grandfather of ALEXANDER the GREAT. At the age of 17 he went to Athens and became a pupil of PLATO. ARISTOTLE spend seven years teaching ALEXANDER who was then only 14.
When in 334 B.C.ALEXANDER THE GREAT "passed into Asia to subdue the world" ARISTOTLE returned to Athens to create his Peripatetic School - so called because he walked about while he taught - and there lived, at the expense of his royal friend for the next twelve years. After ALEXANDER died ARISTOTLE retired to Eubocia until the end of his life. Unfortunately most of his works has been lost. He was forever seeking facts in every department of science. He dealt with all the subject to which he directed his attention in the same scientific way that he dealt with his investigations into natural science and history. The influence which ARISTOTLE had on all subsequent philosophers has equaled that exerted by Plato. He was a philosopher's philosopher.
Early ITALY was a confederation of hundreds of little communities and ROME was the center. From about 500 B.C. on ROME selected to be a republic.From very early on the ROMAN republic had control over all the ITALIAN peninsula with few exceptions. It took hundreds of years to subdue and conquer other nations. While keeping complete control over her Empire, ROME did not interfere in the inner workings of the individual states. The citizens of ROME and affiliated states were not subjected to taxation. However, in case of war (and there was always a war) the people under the umbrella of ROME were compelled to supply manpower for the army.
At the beginning of the first century B.C. - when Julius Caesar was still in his infancy - ROME's overseas possessions comprised parts of SPAIN and southern FRANCE, parts of the DALMATIAN coast, MACEDONIA and PERGAMON, in ASIA MINOR. Also included in ROME'S possessions were the NORTH AFRICAN COAST, SICILY, SARDINIA and CORSICA.
CAESAR was born on July 12. 102 B.C. His parents belonged to the ROMAN nobility. CAESAR displayed no special ability in his early years, but with his uncles political influence (CAIUS MARIUS) he started his incredible career. Because he refused to divorce his young wife he fell in disgrace with the powerful, tyrannical SULLA. In order to escape possible persecution he entered the army, serving with distinction. When SULLA died in 78 B.C. CAESAR returned to ROME. He now studied with the famous rhetorician APOLLONIOUS MOLO of RHODES. In 68 B.C. he became state treasurer and in 65 Magistrate. In 59 he was elected to Consulship.
CAESAR wanted to get ahead and did so by aligning himself with the two most powerful men - POMPEY and CRASSUS. He previously spend a lot of his own money in improvement of public buildings which gained him favorable attention from the public. CAESAR introduced a number of far-reaching reforms not only in his native ROME but also within the possessions of ROME. His political aim was to gain the confidence of the people of ROME which would eventually help him to be master of the known world. He spend nine years to subject GAUL (FRANCE).He completed his goal in three campaigns, the last one in 55 B.C. His government of CISAPLINE and TRANSAPLINE provinces and GAUL was due to end in 54 B.C. In 55 he arranged with his two allies - POMPEY and CRASSUS, that they should be CONSULS for the following year, while his own period of government should be extended for five years. Once this was established he crossed the river Rhine to invade GERMANY.
By 53 B.C. the Land possessions of ROME included all of GAUL, the greater part of ASIA MINOR and most of SPAIN. CAESAR showed great military genius by subduing the GAULS. His prestige and popularity among the ROMANS increased to such an extent that his partner POMPEY began to fear for loosing his own status. Since his other partner CRASSUS was killed during a military campaign in 53 B.C. CAESAR AND CRASSUS began to struggle for the ultimate power. In the meantime, CAESAR made himself a lot of enemies. His strife for dictatorial power was not accepted very well among the powerful. He came to the end of his civil term as CO-CONSUL. It was the law of the country that no commander of an army could bring his military power within ITALY. He knew that he could not return to ROME as a private citizen as he would have been impeached by the SENATE. His demands for sole CONSULSHIP was rejected by POMPEY. CAESAR now had no other options but to move his army into ROME. He was engaged in battle several times and won each time. In 48 B.C. CAESAR had himself declared CONSUL and DICTATOR. He was assassinated on March 15. 44 B.C. in the Senate. Octavian, his great-nephew, succeeded him and adopted his policies.
The profession of a shaman has many advantages. It offers high
status with a safe livelihood free of work in the dreary, sweaty
sense. In most societies it offers legal privileges and
immunities not granted to other men. But it is hard to see how
a man who has been given a mandate from on High to spread
tidings of joy to all mankind can be seriously interested in
taking up a collection to pay his salary. It causes one to
suspect that the shaman is on the moral level of any other con
man. But it's lovely work if you can stomach it.
The celebration of what is now called "CHRISTMAS" predates CHRISTIANITY by at least 4000 years.
The festival of giving presents and merry making was common knowledge to the people of this period.
What is now IRAQ - formerly Mesopotamia - celebrated "NEW YEAR" with several symbolic actions.
Some would make New Years resolutions, others reflected on the past year. A wide variety of mystical believes were used to justify the 12 days of year end and the beginning of the New Year. People indulged in many customs and it is a fact that Mesopotamia could be called the CRADLE OF CIVILIZATION.
This region of the then known world was looked upon as the gospel and slowly the neighboring states imitated the customs of this land. The idea of this kind of FESTIVAL gained acception and spread through Greece to Rome. It also took the road through the Balkans into the heart of Europe. The FESTIVITIES as Mesopotamian's knew it , originating in Babylon, did have great consequences in the future.
The ROMAN EMPIRE, before the CHRISTIAN era, started the year-end festival and the beginning of the New year approx. December 17. December 25. was the shortest day, the sun was at it's lowest ebb. The time was not measured in "MONTHS" but rather by seasons. Festivals, generated by season changes, were supposed to appease the Gods. On December 25. when the sun was standing at it's lowest point in the heavens, the near future would bring longer days. December 25. was the heathen's festivities in workshop of the sun. Approx. March 20. when the sun crosses the celestial equator, day and night are of the same equal length. This was the time the Pagans would celebrate SPRING.
The Winter celebrations did include Bonfires in high places to strengthen the reviving sun in its course. Candles and green wreath were given as presents, the streets were crowded with noisy processions of men and women carrying lighted candles, and public places were decked with flowers and shrubs. The practice of giving and receiving presents was then almost as common as it is now at CHRISTMAS. What we call Christmas spirit is actually the spirit of this old Roman festival. By now, the Kalends of January, the day of the new moon and the first day of the month in the ancient Roman Calendar, was celebrated throughout the ROMAN EMPIRE.
Emperor Aurelian (212? - 275 A.D.) proclaimed Mithraism the official state religion of the ROMAN EMPIRE. Emperor CONSTANTINE adopted CHRISTIANITY as the new RELIGION.
Why and how was the birth of CHRIST getting importance ?
Why was December 25. chosen for this birthday ?
As I have already pointed out in my writings "CHRISTIANITY" very few people knew about Jesus or would be interested in his birthday. Not before the fourth century did the birth of JESUS get any particular attention by the followers of JESUS. By then, the idea to celebrate the birth date of Jesus, got more widespread consideration. The Pagans had their festivals but the Christians did not have anything to compete. December 25. was chosen because it co-incites with the Pagan festival and therefore could attract those who were not involved in this new religion, CHRISTIANITY. When was JESUS born ? I doubt that anyone has the inside knowledge on that one.I would challenge anyone to give a documented date and year.
The contemporary writers of the time of Jesus' birth do not mention him at all. It may be impossible to establish the proper day and year. However, that much is sure, the calendars have been changed and manipulated several times and it would be impossible now to determine the exact date.
Matthew wrote that Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea in the days of Herold the king. According to available records Herold died a short time before the Jewish Passover 750 A.U.C.
(Calendar designed by Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman). This would place the birth of Jesus between the years of 748 and 747 A.U.C. , this is 5 or 6 B.C. Some historians even go back as far as
8 B.C.
The season, Jesus was born, could not have been during the winter. There are two reasonable arguments which dispute the birth of Jesus during winter time.
December is cold in Judea, the shepherds would not be out in the open to look after their herds. This is common sense.
You know the old saying : "If you can't fight them , join them". Well, that is exactly what the early Christian community did. Instead of fighting the old established customs of the Pagans, they went ahead and adopted their customs and RENAMED them. That was simple and it surely worked. The Catholic Church managed in taking over the merriment, the greenery, the lights and the gifts from old established patterns and incorporated them for their own purpose.
By choosing December 25. the Catholic Church grasped the opportunity to turn the people away from the pagan observance of the winter solstice to a day of adoration of Christ the lord. She simply made the old heathen Festival of the sun to the birth of Jesus Christ. The church by making the pagan festival also the Fest of the Nativity, "sanctified " it, and thus as Christianity gained ground slowly but surely changed its ancient worship for the material sun into that of the true light of the World.
In order to make the festival appeal to the Pagans the days between December 25. and January 6. were caught up into one "holy" season, with the birth of Christ at the beginning and the coming of the "Three wise men" at the end. The days between Christmas and Epiphany became known as the twelve Nights of Christmas.
The early Christian Church fought intensively the customs of the Pagans, but the old customs could not be uprooted and destroyed. So , the next best thing was for the Christian Church to incorporate some of the festive periods and named them to suit their purpose. The old traditions lived on (and still do today) and in order to make them presentable to their flock they "purified" the "labels" and applied their own. The fact remains that these Heathen contributions to the celebration of the nativity are what make Christmas what it is today.
Lighted candles, evergreens, fruits and nuts, feast and merriment, giving presents - these are the basic pagan principles which the catholic church could not destroy.
The Germans, the Gauls and Britons celebrated December 25. and the Norsemen held Yule feasts between December 25. and january 6., long before anyone heard of Christianity. Exchanging of Gifts and season greetings at or near Christmas began long before the Catholic Church started to incorporate the old customs of the pagans. Gift-giving was an important part of the pagan celebrations. During the first few centuries Christians did not practice the exchange of presents during the Christmas season.
Knowing that Christ was not born on December 25. - what is the excuse of the Christian Religion for celebrating "CHRISTMAS"?
It is not for me to say what anyone should believe.
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Interesting Personalities and their influence on the World
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Above is only a nut shell of the pro's and con's surrounding Hitler. He is responsible for the death of millions of people. One should also not forget the millions which were injured and those who were dislocated. In short, it was an upheaval the world had never seen before. I only mention him and other leaders because they actually lived and their actions seriously affected literally millions of people.
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BENITO MUSSOLINI
Roman Power at it's highest level extended as far west as SPAIN, north to GERMANY, south to EGYPT and the Mediterranean Islands. ROMAN customs, ROMAN laws and the LATIN language was dominating in the occupied regions.
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HANNIBAL, General SCIPIO AND 80 ELEPHANTS changed an EMPIRE
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The Greeks defeat the Persian Empire and change the course of European Civilization
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IN THE NAME OF GOD
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THE SACKING OF CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE PLUNDER OF THE SACRED RELICS, A.D. 1204 - 1453.
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GREAT PEOPLE - GREAT MINDS
HIPPOCRATES
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PLATO and ARISTOTLE
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JULIUS CAESAR
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HOLY PEOPLE
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Any one who takes an interest in history, by reading encyclopedias, serious and sober written documents, will come to the conclusion that "CHRISTMAS" and "NEW YEAR'S" festivities are going back to the time of "BABYLON". These days of celebrations by people who never heard anything of "CHRISTIANITY" and hundreds of years before "CHRIST" lived, were pagans. It was a great accomplishment of the Catholic Church to adopt this tradition as their own. It fitted into their doctrine. By adoption of these old practices of the pagans, Christianity was more attractive to those who did not (yet) belong to the new religion "CHRISTIANITY".
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