who, with his mistress, produced a son, who later on also was made a POPE. One has to remember, that these deputies of the Lord, had a regular harem for their worldly enjoyment. It is said, that Marozia and her sister Theodora did supply certain sexual services to several POPES. After POPE SERGIUS III. came
who also was a customer of these ladies. ANASTATIUS III. did not last very long. After him came
He fell out with MAROZIA and she had him put in jail and eventually had him suffocated. After this came
(he lasted less than one year).He was murdered shortly after (928).
One should NOT conclude that only the upper leadership of the ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH was so corrupted. EDGAR,(943-75) KING of the ENGLISH (957-75) spoke of the ROMAN CATHOLIC HIERARCHY in the most negative way possible. He said:
The next POPE was the ILLEGITIMATE SON of the infamous MAROZIA and POPE SERGIUS III.,namely:
The local environment in ROME was highlighted by daily homicide. POPE JOHN XI.was only a child and was not very appreciated by his opponents. As a result he was incarcerated and poisoned. MARIOZA, who served so many POPES in the sensual department, managed to have her 19 year old Grandson "OCTAVIAN"
uplifted to the rank of "POPE". He was not even a priest before sitting as POPE. He took on the name of
He improved on the art of being devilish and competed with his contemporary
Under his leadership, there was laughing and dancing in the CHURCH. The POPE's residence was a regular Harem.
says of him " No woman, no girl, not even widows were save from this monster."
This situation came to the attention of the EMPEROR OTTO I. He called a synod and disposed of this POPE. The next POPE was
He found himself in the same great monetary problems as the former POPE JOHN XII. who took off with the coffers containing all the wealth of the Church. As soon as EMPEROR OTTO I. left ROME, the ladies of Rome asked for the return of their DARLING POPE JOHN XII. He re- entered ROME triumphant . His revenge was to torture all the friends of disposed POPE LEO VIII. . Although Leo did escape, his best friend, the BISHOP of SPEYER was tortured until death took him out of his misery. The HOLY FATHER JOHN XII. could not enjoy his life much longer after that. He kidnapped a woman , whose husband caught up with him and killed him on the spot. A wonderful way for a representative of the Lord to die!.
Then came
He was disposed not very long after by the ROMAN people because of his brutality. The next POPE was
and ANTI-POPE BONIFACE VII.
BENEDICT VI. was put in jail and killed by the son of MAROZIA and POPE JOHN XIII.
POPE JOHN XIV (983-83) was arrested by the ANTI-POPE BONIFACE and poisoned.
decreed that he has the right to distribute sainthood and gave the same right to any other BISHOP.
was taken prisoner by his ANTI-POPE GREGOR V. (96-998) and had a terrible end. GREGOR had JOHN's Eyes, Ears and Nose mutilated and then let him die of hunger in prison.
Something which is not absolutely, historical proven, but contemporary writers did indicate that between POPE LEO III. and BENEDICT IV. a woman held the throne of POPE under the name of
This "lady" POPE had a relationship which was not with the Holy Ghost. The result was a child. There are hundreds of books which speak for and against this situation, therefore, I would not like to have an opinion in this matter. However, it is said, that after this incident, every newly appointed Pope had to sit on a chair which had a large opening. In the presence of the clergy and the common people, a priest had to physically inspect the "private parts" of the POPE.
was the last POPE in the tenth century. He was the first to throw the ban on whole countries. He did that to FRANCE. The result was short of catastrophic. Nothing could be done, all churches were closed, no weddings, no funerals, in short the country came to a standstill.
was a different POPE all together. He was a wise, learned man, he favored mathematics and other sciences.
For a long time, the ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH counted only 7 CARDINALS. These CARDINALS usually were of ROMAN nobility. The influence of these CARDINALS swung upwards and the POPE's were forced to increase their numbers and ended up later on with Seventy Cardinals. From then on the selection and election of the POPE was no longer up to the Clergy and the population, but was exclusive the job of the CARDINALS. Since all BISHOPS were equal to the BISHOP (POPE ) of Rome, the creation of such a number of CARDINALS, wrestled the power of election away from the BISHOPS.
was the son of a craftsman. His real name was HILDEBRAND. His contemporary , CARDINAL DAMIANI , called him a holy Devil. Already as a CARDINAL he controlled the PAPAL chair. He was a master of intrigue and hypocrisy . He is the real sponsor of the POPEDOM. He had the idea of a universal monarchy and he was successful in it's instigation. He maintained that the whole world was under the jurisdiction of the POPE.
POPE GREGOR VII. is the originator of the priesthood WITHOUT MARRIAGE. He was the first REAL "POPE" , he ruled over all CARDINALS and BISHOPS. At a synod, he decreed that from here on "THERE WILL BE ONLY ONE POPE". With his intrigue, playing one monarch against another, he always tried to improve his political and military position. He forced the clergy all over the known world to use ROMAN customs and Latin language to conduct church service.
In one of his letters he decreed 27 principles, to name a few:
After this POPE, despite the occasional great popes and periods of brilliance, the papacy went mostly downwards. Popes treated Emperors and Kings like dogs.
crowned the son of the late Emperor FREDERICK I.,- HENRY VI.-, had him kiss his foot and then used the same foot to displace the crown of this monarch.
The most powerful of all Popes was
He ascended the papal chair when he was only 37 years old. He was the inventor of the crazy idea that the consecration of Bread and wine during Communion would be turning into real "Flesh and Blood" of JESUS. This POPE, who could be considered the worst of the lot, started the
He also was the leader in instigating the monstrous and hideous inquisition . Nothing before and very little after this period will equal the murder and torture of so many innocent people. I would encourage the reader to read up on this period of the ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. This was truly one of the most infamous periods in the history of mankind.
The most dangerous enemy of the popedom was Frederich II - GERMAN Emperor. He was trying to make the ordinary people understand that this hocus pocus of CHRISTIANITY was nothing short of fraud. However, the population of GERMANY at that time was almost completely under the thumb of the CATHOLIC clergy. The monks, clergy and bishops rallied against this emperor. His Chancellor Petrus de Vineo wrote against the power of the POPE and denied the jurisdiction of the POPE.
put a spell on this emperor, because he spoke out against the tyranny of the ROMAN CATHOLIC POPE. He allegedly was supposed to have said: " The world has seen three swindlers - two who died in honor and one who ended on the gallows." He meant MOSES, MOHAMMED and CHRIST.
continued his fight against the monarchs who did not kiss his "foot". He, the same as his predecessor, put FREDERICK II. into the spell, not just once but several times. When FREDERICK II. had enough of this "representative of GOD" he marched his military power onto ROME and disposed this miserable creature. The POPE had to leave ROME in a hurry and disappeared to LYON, FRANCE. As soon as FREDERICK II. died, this POPE planned to return to ROME. Before he left LYON he thanked the people of that city for their hospitality. The cynical CARDINAL HUGO wrote in his farewell letter " We have contributed to the welfare of the city of Lyon. When we came we only counted three to four whores, but now that we are leaving, we leave a whole whorehouse. POPE INNOCENCE IV. did originate the read hats for the CARDINALS.
After this POPE a whole row of lesser POPES did come and go. The next POPE who warrants mentioning is
, before he gotten to be POPE, was a naive monk, after his election to the papal chair, he got even more silly. One night, one of the CARDINALS - CAJETAN - used a megaphone and called : "CELSTINE - resign your post, your job is too heavy for you". This fool of a POPE believed that GOD spoke to him and resigned forthwith. That very same CARDINAL took the place of CELSTINE V.. and called himself BONIFACE VIII. (1295-1303).
Since the former POPE CELESTINE V. was well liked, BONIFACE VIII. had a hard time to explain and justifying his predecessors sudden departure. In order to get him out of the way, he had him put in prison where he died in a miserable way.
had the audacity to declare " All human beings must be subjects of the POPE. He decreed :" It is necessary for salvation, that all human creatures shall be subject to the ROMAN Pontiff." He treated the monarchs of other countries with contempt and made their lives miserable. Some did not take this treatment lying down and confronted this monster. He ended up in a terrible way. It was said " He lived like a pig and died like a dog".His sayings are so vulgar that I will not recite them here.
declared BONIFACE a HOLY CATHOLIC CHRISTIAN . Let's not forget that BONIFACE was the POPE who invented the 100 year jubilee. King Philipp of FRANCE, wanted to cut the wings of the POPES and made this and future POPES take their seat in AVIGNON (FRANCE). This period lasted for seventy years. The next POPE
was the son of a shoemaker and was a scoundrel and swindler even before he entered the papal Hierarchy. He got to be 90 years old, leaving millions of dollars in his own coffers.
was a more worldly man. However, CLEMENT knew how to live in luxury. He believed in splendor and lavish display in full glory.
was a mild and virtuous man who tried in vain to move the PAPACY back to ROME. However, in the meantime the PAPACY, being located for so long in FRANCE, had been coined a FRENCH PAPACY, and was not welcome back in Rome. When URBAN V. died,
transferred the PAPACY again to ROME. At that time there were sixteen CARDINALS in ROME, of whom ten were FRENCH and four were ITALIANS. On April 7.1378, the CARDINALS were enclosed in an upper chamber of the VATICAN for the purpose to elect a new POPE. Three days later a new POPE
was elected. He was already a short tempered man, but now he turned into a brutal tyrant. Soon there was a conspiracy to dispose this violent creature. He found out about this and had five of the Cardinals, who did not vote for him, tortured in the most brutal way. He instructed the torturer to inflict extra torment on the fifth. While this CARDINAL screamed of all the pain, the POPE took a walk in his Garden enjoying the shrieks of this unfortunate man.
Toward the end of the 14. Century and the beginning of the 15. We find mostly, two , sometime three POPES (all at the same time). Several so called POPES fought for the title of the "only" POPE. There was a JOHN XXIII , a GREGOR and a BENEDICT
The Council of 1414 at CONSTANCE experienced the greatest assembly of "holy" people, a POPE, an Emperor many Electors, Princes, Counts, CARDINALS, BISHOPS, monks and approx. 1,000 "ladies of the night." <> JOHN XXIII , considered himself POPE already, but when his past life was looked into, he thought it better to leave the scene. He was accused of over 70 major criminal acts, among others, he was accused of murdering his predecessor, POPE CLEMENT V. . In addition he allegedly operated his own personal harem of 200 girls. His crimes were so terrible, that even his enemies could not bring themselves to publish them all. This POPE was truly the "scum of the earth".
The result of the council of CONSTANCE was :
JOHN XXIII. was condemned to death, GREGOR withdrew voluntarily and BENEDICT went to Spain in a real hurry.
POPE MARTIN V.. (1417-31) had him poisoned.
After this came a POPE by the name of
POPE CALIXTUS III. (1455-58),
and PIUS II. (1458-64).
These were real examples of a bad lot of evils.
PIUS II.
installed bordellos (open to the public) and inspired his CARDINALS to increase their income by employing 20 - 30 whores each. He committed unbelievable, disgraceful acts of villainous deeds.
His successor was
He was a good father to his children. He collected huge sums of money for the benefit of his family. He was so greedy that he encouraged monks and other clerics to do all kinds of criminal acts , as long as they paid him a "sin" fee.
I am quoting now: if a cleric killed someone premeditated he could have forgiveness for "zwei Goldgulden and acht Groschen" (Monetary value of that time).
If one killed his father, mother, brother or sister, that was cheaper, just about half price. His specialty was witchcraft. He put considerable efforts in finding out females he could accuse of sorcery . He can be described as the originator of "witch trials". Many lost their lives due to these witch hunts.
So far I have only skimmed over the lives and deeds of some of the POPES. Many books have been written about the POPES in general and in particular about
Although he was not any less or more wicked than the rest of them, he was one of the most notorious Popes. He was born in VALENCIA (SPAIN). His name was at first RODERIC LANGOLO, his parents changed his name to "BORGIA". He was in his early years a soldier.
As soon as his uncle
became POPE, RODERIC hurried to ROME. This POPE CALIXTUS III. bestowed titles and presents on his nephew and eventually made him a CARDINAL. When
passed away, CARCINAL RODERIC bribed 22 of the 27 CARDINALS with promises, which assured his election to the position of POPE. He had five children - 4 sons and one daughter. One of the sons was CESARE and the daughter's name was LUCREZIA. I would encourage my readers to purchase some of the many books written of POPE ALEXANDER VI., his son CESARE and his daughter LUCREZIA. Any criminal court case of resent memory could not match the unbelievable acts this family committed.
CARDINAL CESARE BORGIA arranged the marriage of his brother GOTTFRIED with SANZIA, the daughter of King CHARLES VIII. of FRANCE. POPE ALEXANDER VI. (1492-1503) knew how to milk the King of FRANCE for huge sums of money. By playing one against the other, he made pacts with the east and the west, all the time gaining enormous financial gain. ALEXANDER VI elevated his oldest son to " DUKE of BENEVENT " which his brother CESARE did not like and without much fanfare killed him. Soon the opportunity arrived for CESARE to advance his fortune. He gave up his CARDINALSHIP and was appointed DUKE OF VALANCE by the King of FRANCE. Soon CESARE married the daughter of the King.
LUCREZIA, the young, illegitimate daughter of POPE ALEXANDER , had already been married several times. This time she married COUNT VON BISCEGLIA who soon was murdered to make room for his successor, PRINCE FERRARA . The papal family lived an extraordinary life. Intermittent, the Father and the brothers were sexually involved with LUCREZIA. She even had a son from her father, who was named RODERIC. He was made Duke of SERMONATA.
The Italian Princes did not approve of this situation. They confronted the "Holy Father" with the result that most of them died by the hands of CESARE and his (holy) father. ALEXANDER VI. needed money - lots of it. He had a wonderful way of disposing rich people for the purpose of inheriting their money and estates. A well known and documented example is : CARDINAL CORNETO , a very rich man was invited for dinner. ALEXANDER VI. and his son CESARE arranged to poison the wine provided for CARDINAL CRONETO . By mistake, the poisoned wine was served to ALEXANDER VI. and the next day, his miserable life ended rather quickly. CESARE, who also drank the poisoned wine, suffered for a long time from the effects.
The private secretary to POPE ALEXANDER VI. BURKHARD (master of ceremonies) wrote in his memoirs " The most luxuriant fantasy can not imagine what took place at the palace of the POPE. The POPE made a Bordello out of the "House of GOD".
During the holy prayers in the year of 1501 following happened (Eye witness Private secretary of the POPE, (BURKHARD) : At the invitation of CESARE and LUCREZIA, about fifty nobles were invited for dinner. After the dinner, the guests were invited to dance with the servants, eventually encouraged to shed their clothes. Later on, at the instigation of this Duo (brother and sister) some of the male guests had to have sexual relations with females selected by Cesare.
This POPE and his children finally had to worry about the newest science, the "printing press".
They were concerned about the publicity they would get by this new invention. He immediately introduced censure of everything concerning his families slovenly life style.(NATIONAL SECURITY!:)
The next POPE was
He got to sit on the PAPAL throne by craftiness, bribery and corruption. He instigated wars, for no reason at all, had everyone fight everyone else, all along for his own advancement. His Opponents finally had enough of this "Holy Father" and called a Synod at PISA in order to get rid of this materialistic " son of the CHURCH". He was convicted among other things as a blood thirsty tyrant. JULIUS did not care about this ban and got even nastier. He hated the King of FRANCE, LOUIS XII. and displayed the audacity to dismiss this King. The wars this POPE instigated, were dictated by blood thirst and revenge. More than 200,000 people lost their lives because of the ambitions of this man. This POPE was just as rotten as his predecessor, but he had an added feature, he was also a drunkard. He also had a certain "cavalier" illness which had an intolerable Smell associated.
Another POPE following this Jewel was LEO X.
Another sleazy, miserable pest of human being. He also had the same illness as the one before him, this being the reason the other CARDINALS made him the POPE. They could not stand the smell of this rotten guy. LEO X. came out of a well known family - the Medici.
One has to give him credit for his appreciation of the arts and sciences. He was a very intelligent man, but like the others before him, his life style forced him to extract enormous amounts of money from any available source. His palace was known to be the most extravagant and he threw money away with full hands.
This perverted specimen of a human being died suddenly, he had not even time to get the last sacraments. His continued "wholesale" of forgiving sins, was a major contributor to the coming Reformation by LUTHER.
The next shyster of a POPE was
ADRIAN VI. (1521-23).
This POPE of GERMAN origin came to ROME with very little money and liked his Beer over wine. The CARDINALS who were used to excessive life styles were most disappointed. This POPE was a dry, wooden pedant who did not have much of a chance to live a long life in ROME. He had one bad habit - he wanted to be honest. He confessed to his CARDINALS, that LUTHER was not really unreasonable in demanding reformation. He condemned the terrible lives of his predecessors and was honestly thinking of reforming, the rotten to the bone, CATHOLIC CHURCH. With this intention, he invited his sure death. His own personal physician ended the POPE'S life. However, let's not make the mistake of considering him a "man without sin". Before he became Pope, he was the major inquisitor in SPAIN and had 1020 people burned on the stake. Another 21,845 rich people were judged to loose their honor and therefore had their belongings as Real estate etc. confiscated.
The next one in the endless line of these scoundrels was
He had real problems with many enemies. CHARLES of BOURBON stormed with his unruly and unpaid soldier hordes into ROME. He was shot, however, his army was ready to revenge his death by any means. Among this army were 14,000 GERMAN soldiers under the leadership of GEORGE of FRONDSBERG. This FRONDSBERG did not have a high opinion of the PAPAL state. He carried a golden rope with the intention to hang this holy POPE as high as possible. The POPE retreated to the "CASTEL SANT' ANGELO". The invading army represented a number of EUROPEAN nations, GERMANS, FRANKS even SPANIARDS. The soldiers committed murder, stole anything within site, nothing was sacred. It was common knowledge that no sin was too big, which could not be bought off with either money,gold, silver and valuable stones. They even let the POPE out of his prison for the price of 400.000 Dukaten. He was disguised as a servant in order to flee ROME. He was not just unfortunate to have no luck, he also did not have any skilfulness.
He could not understand that the times of INNOCENCE had passed. He still committed the political blunder to excommunicate King HENRY VIII. . of ENGLAND.
The next POPE is
He was a CARDINAL at the age of 26. The reason being, he was responsible for the matchmaking of his sister JULIA FARNESE to POPE ALEXANDER VI.-
was one of the most dissolute, debauched human beings one can imagine. Murder and similar criminal offences was an almost daily occurrence. He poisoned his own mother and sister. But these are little things, "Just in the Family." Far more important is the fact that this monster started the order of the "JESUITS". This was authorized by the POPE on September 27. 1540.
was a "Good for nothing". He together with CARDINAL CRESZENTIUS communal favored the same female and the children were raised in joint responsibility. This was obviously necessary as no one knew who the father of these children were. One of his children had a very ugly face and was made a CARDINAL by the time he reached the age of 16. During his "leadership" of the ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, this nut wanted to take inventory of all the "ladies of the night" in Rome. It turned out that there were over 40,000.
The next holy POPE was
. He was as proud as a peacock, nearly insane and 80 years old when he took over the "Holy place in ROME". Under his command, the inquisition could not kill enough people. He died in 1559. What is written about him is real scandalous.
Now comes
During his time the council of TRIENT, which was active for eighteen years, undertook to reform the CATHOLIC CHURCH. After him came
He said :" As monk I hope to get blessed, As CARDINAL I have doubt, but as POPE, I consider it an impossibility. This PIUS V. was the most cruelest of all POPES. He was the worst Inquisitor up to this time. His main effort was the extermination of the heretics. He was the creator of the horrible persecution of those who did NOT BELIEVE and he is personally responsible for the killings of 18,000 person in Holland. It took six years of constant hunting of these unfortunate people who choose not to be part of this corrupt religion. One should not omit the good side of this "Representative of God". He lived a very strict life, like a hermit. He did not wear a shirt, but used a belt which was like barbed wire on his bare body. He ate mostly Vegetables and drank only Water. Truly a prince of the church. I can see a parallel to the Pole who is presently sitting as representative of GOD in ROME. See his communique about celebacy (end of this document)
The next "Prince" of the CHURCH was
He was not far behind the former POPE's in his behavior. He encouraged his JESUIT GENERAL AQUAVIV to lure important, high standing members of the PROTESTANT faith to return to the CATHOLIC CHURCH. He offered a special inducement - after they re-committed themselves to the ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH - they could still practice their new found form of religion.
The next "wonder" POPE was
His father was a wine grower, his mother was a maid. His education was very limited, he grew up guarding pigs. His name was, prior to being POPE, FELICE PERETTI and was born in 1521. He joint a monastery and under the guidance of a Franciscan monk was exposed to POPE
This POPE made him CARDINAL of MONTALTO. The following POPE GREGOR XIII. did not share the same enthusiasm for this CARDINAL PERETTI PERETTI therefore returned to his monastery and conducted himself for what he really was - a Franciscan monk. He acted real humble, naive and bodily frail. He was jokingly called the "Donkey from Mark" (the place where he was born). At that time the CARDINALS in ROME were again ready to elect a new POPE. Since the CARDINALS could not agree which one of them should be the new POPE, they suggested that the "Donkey of Mark" would be the right one for the position of POPE. When the monk PERETTI found out that his name was suggested for POPE, he dropped the mask and showed his real character. To the chagrin of the assembled CARDINALS, the newly elected Pope outwitted them and made it quite clear that he was not the sick, simple monk, but a POPE to be reckoned with. The CARDINALS were horrified with the result of their selection. They figured that this lame monk would be an easy subject to handle. Not so at all.
He soon showed a very heavy hand in getting some order into the CATHOLIC mess.One of his first acts was to get rid of the many bandits which controlled the country side. To that time, no one could travel very far without being robbed or worse. He did something which our own judicial system should incorporate, he prosecuted all the criminals and put them on the gallows. He said " I would rather see the gallows busy than the jails."In this regard he was ahead of the world by hundreds of years.
All of ROME was appalled by his strict measure concerning criminality. He did not make any !! difference between rich and poor !!. If a criminal act was involved, the perpetrator was punished, regardless of his social classification. He not only was after the common criminals, he also prosecuted operators of Bordellos etc. - NOW THAT WAS A GOOD HUMAN BEING AND ONE OF THE FEW POPE'S LIVING UP TO THEIR REAL PURPOSE OF BEING POPE.
He was known to be for the poor. He organized reasonable priced food for the less fortunate and at the same time forced the rich to pay their overdue bills. He was a POPE of great virtue. He was grateful to those who helped him when he was young and generally paid attention to those who lived a good life.
This was the first REAL POPE, a man of intelligence and virtue. It is a miracle that he lived as long as he did. Usually a man of his quality would have been murdered in a very short time. Having said that, he soon took ill. During 1590 the first and last Pope of great human quality died. Before he died he wanted to dismantle the various orders of monks and monasteries. He should have known the power of these rotten monks, it most likely cost him his life.
After this TRULY GREAT POPE , a number of faceless figures follow , not worth mentioning.
The first POPE in the 17. Century was
He wanted to return to the times of SIXTUS V. , however, no one took him too seriously on his old dream, that everyone, regardless of social status should bow to the POPE. Because of LUTHER's reformation, the CATHOLIC CHURCH was in trouble all over. Even within his own circle of CHURCH princes, he had enemies. He was not liked by the contemporary writers and one in particular, PAUL SARPI, was nearly murdered. He survived 15 dagger stabs. It was dangerous to oppose tyranny (so it is today, the difference being that they are now using paper daggers).
was only a little tyrant, because he did not have the power to be a big one. His fanaticism had not limits when it came to hunting down heretics. He publicized his famous Bull which started with "In coena Domini..." He concerned himself with the smallest details, e.g. no one could chew tobacco, smoke or sneeze during CHURCH service. He also decreed that on top of the 54 Sundays an additional 34 Holidays had to be observed. He swindled 20 Million Skudi together, using it mostly for his family. On top of this he left a debt of 8 million after his death.
was a miserable, rotten Pope. He wholly depended on his mistress, Donna Olympia, the widow of his brother. This woman governed the CATHOLIC CHURCH single handily. She negotiated public offices, titles and anything that made her money. She was so pressed for money that she confiscated the real estate of 2,000 monasteries and sold their land and buildings. During the last 10 days of her husbands life, she managed to gain another half a million Scudi.
One time, she lost a considerable sum of money while gambling. When she was reminded of the momentous amount she lost, she remarked: "these are only the sins of the GERMANS." When the end of the thirty year war came about, the POPE was most indignant. Because of this he was losing considerable sums of money.
The next holy man, the last POPE in the 17th century, was
In comparison to the "skunks" of the last few hundred years, this man was a decent human being. Of the POPE's of the 18th century is not much to say, other then, that they were dancing to the pipes of the JESUITS. Anyone who is interested in this group of perverts (Jesuits) should read up. The devil himself could not have invented a worse bunch of religious fanatics.
POPE BENEDICT XIV. (1740-1758)
was a scholar and very humorous. He was one of the most intelligent POPE's ever on the PAPAL chair. He was forced to minimize the terrible happenings of the last few hundred years, mostly caused by incompetent, miserable inhuman bastards. He tried to alleviate the wrongs done by his predecessors.
In FRANCE, it was seriously considered to get rid of this tyrant in ROME, but they did not have to wait too long and this monster died.
His successor,
is considered the best of 200 Popes. His original name was GANGANELLI. He progressed to the throne of the PAPACY by sheer talent. After he was POPE, he continued his simple life the same way as an ordinary monk. He distributed money to those who were in need. He is considered one of the most humane human being ever to be the leader of the ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH up to this time. He was truly a friend of the people. After three years of examination of the situation concerning the JESUITS, he finally signed the Papal Bull "Dominus ac redemptor ...."which was the end of the JESUITS. IT WAS ALSO HIS END AS WELL. Anyone who was in the way of these monsters, could not expect to live much longer. Already during the Easter period of 1774 he experienced the poison which was given to him. All antidotes were ineffective and he died on September 22. His body was wrecked by the poison to the point where his hair fell out, his skin came off his face etc.
After long and very violent fights between the JESUITS in ROME and others , the JESUITS were successful in electing one of their own. He was
It is said about him, that he was: "ignorant, cunning, intolerant, imposing, arrogant, dissolute, obstinate, greedy, impish" and many more such outstanding characteristics. The only recognition one can offer this man , that he was a comedian. He made several trips, one to VIENNA and MUNICH, but did not get the recognition he expected. Times had changed and the old man could not understand it. Close to the end of his PAPAL regime, he had to flee ROME and had to leave ITALY all together. He died on August 29.1799. The FRENCH, under the leadership of NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, put an end to this "Pontiff".
The next pope
was
was a playboy who pleasured many a GERMAN lady. He immediately declared the year 1825 a jubilee. He invited all the devout CATHOLICS to come to ROME. He is hard to describe, he was just a POPE. He died during 1829 and was followed by
who did not last very long either. He died on November 30. 1830.
February 2. 1831 CARDINAL MAURO CAPELLARI took on the PAPACY under the name of
of
. He decided to tighten the rein of his government. The discontent among the populace was critical. Only with the help of the FRENCH and AUSTRIAN military units could he keep order. Free speech or publications of disagreeable theses were punished. This POPE got into serious disagreements with a number of EUROPEAN Governments. He wanted to preserve all the old, religious power the PAPAL throne once had. On the other hand he opposed any new science etc. He was in disagreement with PORTUGAL, SPAIN, RUSSIA and SWITZERLAND.
GREGORY's dreary PAPACY saw draconian repression. His agents, CARDINAL LAMBRUCHINI and CARDINAL MASIMO exulted publicly over prisoners beaten or starved to death. Repression went to extremes of brutality rarely surpassed. MASSIMO reported that with few exceptions, the population was hostile toward the PAPACY. When he died in 1846, he was unmourned, abandoned and detested.
His successor was
His original name was GIOVANNI MARIA GRAF MASTAI-FERRETTI. He was born on May 13. 1792. He suffered of Epilepsy, wanted to join the Swiss Guard but was not accepted. He then decided on the religious life. However, since he could not be a priest having Epilepsy, he was healed by a fellow priest, who put his hand on him. 1823 he was send to CHILE on a mission. From there he returned to be made ARCHBISHOP, 1833 he got to be BISHOP of IMOLA and 1840 CARDINAL.
On June 16. 1846 he war ordained as
POPE PIUS IX.
On November 24. 1848 the political situation in ROME sharpened to the point were the POPE under the umbrella of the military escaped to NAPLES. After that ROME was declared a republic.
POPE PIUS IX.
instigated the crazy doctrine of the Immaculate conception of the Virgin Maria. He also extracted from the VATICAN Council the dogma of the papal infallibility. With this manifestoes the POPE turned back the clock by hundreds of years. (December 8. 1854). Pius IX. died on February 7. 1878.
Next was POPE LEO XIII.. (1878-1903)
Next came POPE PIUS X. . (1903-14)
Next was BENEDICT XV. (1914-22)
Next came PIUS XI. (1922-39)
Next PIUS XII. . ( 1939-58)
Next JOHN XXIII. . (1958-63)
Next PAUL VI. (1963-78)
Next JOHN PAUL I. (1978 - April 2. 2005
Presently Benedict XVI. (April 19. 2005 - )
I respectfully submit that POPE JOHN PAUL 1., considering his decree dated February 25. 97, must have experimented in Artificial Stupidity.
Direct quote: Vatican City (AP) Divorced Catholics who remarry should be urged to stop living in a " state of sin" ....meaning no sex in a new relationship.
Priests also should counsel those who have not remarried to remain faithful to their original vows and not enter into other unions, according to the guidelines, issued by the Pontifical Council on the Family.
Priests should invite such couples "to recognize their irregular situation, which involves a state of sin, and ask God for the grace of a true conversion." Vatican officials said that means couples should abstain from sex.
I am asking: If the Bible recommends to pro-create, why are the catholic priests not allowed the same?. The answer is very simple ......
This ends the story of the Catholic Church and its leaders. This writing only skims over the many volumes of books which have been written on this subject.
I did not intend to write a complete history of the Roman Catholic Church, but rather just offer a few glimpses here and there. It would take a life time of many people working together to get a complete encyclopedia of the history of the Catholic Church. By that I mean an unbiased, factual report.
The reader will have to use this material as a starter for further investigation. I have given the dates wherever possible.
In my three volumes Christianity I, II and III I have given a factual account of the early Christian era and the evolving Catholic church. You may agree or disagree, but you can't change facts.
The ritual and discipline of the early English church were largely introduced by the Celtic and Gallic missionaries and monks, but after the arrival of missionaries from Rome in 597, the Celtic forms gradually gave way to the liturgy and practices of the Roman West. After the Norman conquest of 1066, continental influence strengthened the connections between the English church and the papacy. A number of English kings sought to limit the power of the church, but without success until the reign of Henry VIII.
The acts of Parliament between 1529 and 1536 mark the beginning of the Anglican church as a national church independent of papal jurisdiction. Henry VIII, vexed at the refusal of Pope Clement VII to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragón, induced Parliament to enact statutes denying the pope's jurisdiction over the Church of England. Although Henry did not change the basic nature of the church, after his death the impetus for religious reform increased. After the 1603 accession of the first Stuart monarch, James I, as king of England, agitation for religious change became closely associated with the struggle of Parliament against Stuart absolutism. When King James II attempted to reintroduce the practice of Roman Catholicism, he lost his throne to William III and Mary II in the ensuing revolution of 1688.
In the 1700s the Evangelical Revival infused a new sense of piety and of personal consecration into the established church. During the 1800s a movement was launched by a group of clerics at the University of Oxford to revive the Catholic elements in the church's spiritual heritage. Low Church members, who felt more allied to Protestantism, opposed this movement; but the High Church Oxford movement prospered, transforming the face of the English church. It gave a new emphasis to the dignity and beauty of religious ritual and to the central place of worship. The foundation of an independent Protestant Episcopal church in the United States dates from the time of the American Revolution (1775-1783), when Anglican church members in the former colonies could no longer give their allegiance to the mother church. Other churches developed that were centered upon the Church of England. They became known as the Anglican Communion. The doctrine of the Church of England is found primarily in the Book of Common Prayer, and secondarily in the Thirty-nine Articles. The Church of England differs from the Roman Catholic church chiefly in denying the claims of the papacy both to jurisdiction over the church and to infallibility as promulgator of Christian doctrinal and moral truth.
Lutheranism, major Protestant denomination, which originated as a 16th-century movement led by Martin Luther. Luther, a German Augustinian monk and professor of theology, originally planned to reform the Western Christian church. Because Luther and his followers were excommunicated by the pope, however, Lutheranism developed in a number of separate national and territorial churches, thus initiating the breakup of the organizational unity of Western Christendom. Lutheranism is the largest Protestant denomination in the world, with about 80 million members. Doctrine, Worship, and Organization.
According to Lutheran teaching, all human beings are considered sinners and unable to contribute to their liberation. Salvation does not depend on worthiness or merit but is a gift of God's grace. Lutherans believe that faith, understood as trust in God's steadfast love, is the only way toward salvation. For Lutherans, baptism signifies God's unconditional love, which is independent of any intellectual, moral, or emotional achievements on the part of human beings.
From the beginning, the methods of worship in the Lutheran church diverged from those of the Roman Catholic church. The Lutheran church practiced only two of the seven sacraments, baptism and the Eucharist. Worship was conducted in the language of the people, as opposed to in Latin. Lutherans also encouraged congregational participation, especially singing, in worship. In the Lutheran celebration of the Eucharist, the symbolic bread and wine were given to all communicants, whereas Roman Catholics had allowed the wine only to priests. Lutherans accept the authority of the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed, and the Athanasian Creed. Lutherans study the books of the Apocrypha of the Old Testament and traditionally include them in vernacular versions of the Bible. Unlike Roman Catholic priests, Lutheran clergy may marry. The European Lutheran churches are closely tied to their respective governments as established churches, either exclusively, as in the Scandinavian countries, or in a parallel arrangement with Roman Catholicism, as in Germany.
The early development of Lutheranism was greatly influenced by political events. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V was unable to suppress Lutheranism because the empire was being threatened by the Turks. Despite the Edict of Worms (1521), which placed the Lutherans under imperial ban, the movement continued to spread. Intermittent religious wars followed, ending in the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which to a certain extent sanctioned Lutheran churches.
Beginning in the late 17th century, the reform movement called Pietism, which stressed individual conversion and a devout way of life, revitalized Lutheranism. Lutheran theology during the 18th century reflected the rationalism of the Enlightenment. The establishment of the Church of the Prussian Union in 1817 united Calvinists and millions of German Lutherans into one church. This development was bitterly opposed by a large number of Lutherans, some of whom broke away to establish a separate church. In the 20th century Lutheran leaders in Norway and Denmark took major roles in the resistance to Nazi occupation of their countries.
Lutheranism arrived in North America with early European settlers. In the 17th century European Lutherans settled in New Amsterdam (now New York City) and in Delaware. At the beginning of the 18th century German Lutherans settled in large numbers in Pennsylvania. Because of the large numbers of immigrants to the United States and Canada in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the integration of Lutherans into North American society went slowly. Lutheranism was divided into numerous German, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Finnish, and Slovak groups. Following World War I (1914-1918), however, unification and integration proceeded rapidly. Lutheranism is the third largest Protestant denomination in the United States. Recently, Lutheranism has grown most rapidly in Africa and Asia. The only country outside of Europe where a majority of the population is Lutheran is Namibia in southern Africa.
Mennonites, Protestant evangelical religious group, which originated in Switzerland and the Netherlands at the time of the Protestant Reformation. Mennonites are divided into a number of separate bodies, some of them more conservative and withdrawn from modern society than others. They all hold in common the ideal of a religious community based on New Testament models.
Baptism is administered only on the profession of faith; infant baptism is rejected. The Lord's Supper is celebrated, and the rite of foot washing is sometimes observed in connection with it. Many Mennonites refuse to bear arms, to take judicial oaths, or to hold public office. The more conservative Mennonite groups are distinguished by plain living and simplicity of dress. Mennonites are traditionally rural farmers.
The Mennonites emerged in Switzerland in the 1520s as radical Protestants. Because they rejected the concept of a state church and refused to accept military service, they were regarded as subversive and were persecuted. A parallel movement emerged at about the same time in the Netherlands, led by Menno Simons, from whom the name Mennonite is derived. Similar groups sprang up in southern Germany and also in Austria, where they were called Hutterites. The Swiss Brethren continued to suffer harassment and persecution into the 18th century. Many fled to the Rhineland and the Netherlands, others to America (Pennsylvania) or eastern Europe.
In North America the largest Mennonite bodies are the Mennonite Church ("Old Mennonites") and the General Conference Mennonite Church. In 1980 the Mennonite Church had about 142,000 members worldwide. The General Conference Mennonite Church had about 60,000 members in North America.
Mormonism, major world religion of more than eight million members, founded in 1830 by Joseph Smith, known as the prophet. From a handful of members at the beginning, the movement has grown steadily through proselytizing and a relatively high birth rate. Before the mid-1900s conversions had been most numerous in the United States, Great Britain, and Scandinavia, but during recent years Mormonism has grown rapidly in developing countries as a result of a vigorous missionary program.
Mormonism, officially The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, is a Christian religion. Mormon doctrine is derived from four basic scriptures: the Bible, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants (revelations and statements, mostly issued by Joseph Smith in the 1830s and 1840s), and the Pearl of Great Price (an 1842 compilation of shorter works). These scriptures are subject to interpretation and expansion by church leaders, who are believed to receive additional revelations and inspiration. Certain Mormon doctrines diverge sharply from traditional Christian orthodoxy- a belief in the prenatal existence of human souls, a definition of the Trinity as three separate individuals, and a belief that human beings can attain the status of godhood in future aeons.
Offices in the individual congregations, called wards, are staffed by lay members on a rotating basis. The bishop presides over a ward, usually serving for about five years. The church organization is arranged vertically, with programs and policies generally determined centrally. The policymaking body is the Council of Twelve Apostles. At the top of the hierarchy is the president of the church, often referred to as the prophet. Worship is simple, consisting of hymns, prayers, the sacrament of the Lord's Supper (celebrated with bread and water), and sermons delivered by lay members of the congregation.
Mormonism came into existence during the early 19th-century American movement of religious revivalism called the Second Great Awakening. About 1820 Joseph Smith was 14 years old and living with his family near Palmyra, New York, when he had a vision of God the Father and Jesus Christ. After 1827, by his own account, he yearly visited a book written in a hieroglyphic script on golden plates buried in a nearby hill, which had been disclosed to him by an angel. In 1830 he published a translation of these plates called the Book of Mormon, which he believed to be a religious record of the ancient inhabitants of North America. In 1830 he organized what would become the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in New York.
By early 1831 the center had moved to Ohio; another Mormon settlement was made in Missouri. Converts flocked to both locations, but local residents confronted the Mormons with threats and violence, triggered by fears of economic and political competition. By 1839 the Mormons fled to Commerce, Illinois. Smith and his associates formed a militia, which was in reality a private army. By the early 1840s opposition to Mormonism was intensified by Smith's apparent assumption of monarchical powers and by rumors that Mormons were beginning to practice polygamy. In 1844 Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum were imprisoned in Carthage, Illinois, and then were assassinated by a mob.
After Smith's death splinter groups appeared. In 1860 Joseph Smith III, the prophet's oldest son, accepted leadership of one group, which established headquarters at Independence, Missouri, as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. The leadership of the majority of the Mormons had been exercised by a group known as the Twelve Apostles. Brigham Young became president and prophet of the church in 1847 after leading an exodus to what is now Salt Lake City, Utah, where a new center was established.
The Mormons continued to encounter hostility as a result of their communal economic experiments, their practice of bloc voting through the church-approved political party, and their open acknowledgment of polygamy in 1852. Incited by reports of disloyalty, the federal government sent an army to Utah from 1857 to 1858. This was followed by government efforts to force Mormon compliance with monogamous marriage. Church president Wilford Woodruff issued a manifesto in 1890 that has traditionally been viewed as the end of polygamy.
Mormons are commonly perceived as a conservative Christian church and are often identified with Protestant fundamentalists (see Fundamentalism). In theology, conservative Protestants and Mormons differ on fundamental questions; with respect to social issues, the two groups have much in common.
The Orthodox Church, one of the three major branches of Christianity. In historical continuity with the communities created by the apostles of Jesus Christ in the eastern Mediterranean region, the Orthodox church spread by missionary activity throughout Eastern Europe. The Orthodox church has also established communities in Western Europe, the western hemisphere, and, more recently, Africa and Asia. It currently has more than 174 million adherents throughout the world.
The Orthodox church is a fellowship of independent churches, each governed by its own head bishop. These churches share a common faith, common principles of church policy and organization, and a common liturgical tradition. Only the languages used in worship and minor aspects of tradition differ from country to country. The head bishops of the churches are presidents of episcopal synods, which, in each church, constitute the highest authority. Among the various churches, a "primacy of honor" belongs to the patriarch of Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey), because the city was the seat of the Byzantine Empire, which between AD 320 and 1453 was the center of Eastern Christendom. His authority has never been comparable to that exercised in the West by the Roman pope.
In its doctrinal statements and liturgical texts, the Orthodox church strongly affirms the authority of the ecumenical councils of the first millennium of Christian history, at which East and West were represented together. These councils defined the basic Christian doctrines on the Trinity, on Christ, and on the Virgin Mary, who is venerated as the Mother of God. The doctrine of seven sacraments is generally accepted in the Orthodox church. The central sacrament is the Eucharist; the others are baptism; confirmation; penance; Holy Orders; marriage; and anointment of the sick. A concern for continuity and tradition is characteristic of Orthodoxy. The Orthodox Church views the apostolic succession of bishops as the guardians and witnesses of a tradition that can be traced back without interruption to the apostles. This succession unites the sacramental community of local churches in the community of faith.
The Orthodox liturgy, created primarily in Byzantium and translated into many languages, preserves texts and forms dating from the earliest Christian church. One of the major characteristics of Orthodox worship is a great wealth of hymns, which mark the various liturgical cycles. Inseparable from the liturgical tradition, religious art is seen by Orthodox Christians as a form of pictorial confession of faith and as a channel of religious experience. This central function of icons- unparalleled in other Christian tradition- received its full definition following the end of the iconoclastic movement in Constantinople in 843. Iconoclasm rejected icons as idols; Orthodox theologians argued that the icons of Christ and the saints provide direct personal contact with the holy persons represented on them. The victory over iconoclasm led to the widespread use of iconography in the Christian East. Monasticism also plays a central role in the Orthodox Church.
Constantinople remained the center of Orthodox Christianity during most of the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century). Many Slavic nations, including the Bulgarians, the Russians, and the Serbs, were converted to Orthodoxy during this time. Tensions periodically arose between Constantinople and Rome after the 4th century. A number of issues and doctrinal differences became controversial, including the Orthodox practices of allowing married men into the priesthood and of using unleavened bread in the Eucharist. Whereas the East invoked the authority of councils, where the local churches spoke as equals, the papacy in the West considered itself the ultimate judge in matters of faith and discipline. It is often assumed that the final schism occurred in 1054 after the patriarch Michael Cerularius and papal legates issued mutual anathemas of excommunication. The schism, however, actually took the form of a gradual estrangement. Several attempts at reunion ended in failure.
After the Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453, the Turks recognized the ecumenical patriarch of that city as the religious and political spokesman for the entire Christian population of the Turkish empire. The patriarchate of Constantinople ended as an ecumenical institution in the 1800s when, with the liberation of the Orthodox peoples from Turkish rule, a succession of self-ruling churches was set up.
The Orthodox church in Russia declared its independence from Constantinople in 1448. Except for the brief reign of Patriarch Nikon in the mid-1600s, the patriarchs of the Russian church were entirely subordinate to the czars. In 1721 Czar Peter the Great abolished the patriarchate, and thereafter the church was governed through the imperial administration. The patriarchate was reestablished in 1917, at the time of the Russian Revolution, but the church was violently persecuted by the Communist government. As the Soviet regime became less repressive and, in 1991, broke up, the church showed signs of renewed vitality. The Orthodox church in Eastern Europe had a similar history.
Presbyterianism, a form of church government and a particular theological tradition found in the Presbyterian and Reformed denominations. The churches in this tradition issued from the Protestant Reformation of the 1500s.
Church government by elders characterizes the organization of Presbyterian and Reformed churches. Power is balanced between clergy and laity and between congregations and larger governing bodies. Although the structure of government varies, it usually consists of ascending church bodies, or courts. A presbytery, or classis, is made up of churches within a particular geographic area; it ordains ministers and exercises both pastoral and judicial functions for these churches. Presbyteries belong to synods, which are larger geographic units of the church, and a general assembly, or general synod, unites the entire church. At all levels the church is governed by its elders- clergy and laity elected as representatives of the people. The churches in the Presbyterian tradition have usually been organized according to national boundaries.
The roots of Presbyterianism can be traced to the theology of John Calvin, the leader of the Protestant Reformation in Geneva, Switzerland (see Calvinism). His theology is characterized by its reliance on the Bible as interpreted through the aid of the Holy Spirit and by Calvin's stress on the inability of people to achieve salvation through their own works. Calvin reduced the number of Christian sacraments to two- baptism of both infants and adults, and the Lord's Supper (see Eucharist). Although the theology of Presbyterianism is characterized by diversity today, Calvin's theology serves as a central source. From its earliest days, the Reformed tradition was the most international of all branches of Protestantism. Currently large Presbyterian and Reformed churches can be found throughout the world.
Although Presbyterian and Reformed churches regard the Bible as the supreme authority for the church and the individual believer, they are also known as confessional churches because of their effort to write confessions that define and guide the theology and practice of the church. Many Reformed confessions have been written in different countries at different times. The most influential of all these confessions, particularly for Anglo-American Presbyterian churches, has been the Westminster Confession.
Presbyterian worship has always allowed for considerable flexibility in forms and practices, but it is based on Calvin's definition of the essential characteristics of the church being the faithful proclamation of the gospel and the celebration of the sacraments. In the United States emphasis was originally placed on the sermon as the center of worship; liturgy was practically absent, and the Lord's Supper was celebrated only occasionally. During the late 1800s and early 1900s services began to include a greater use of liturgy and a more regular celebration of the Lord's Supper.
The First American Presbyterian churches were founded by English colonists on Long Island, New York, and in New England during the 1640s. Four major divisions have occurred in American Presbyterianism. The first arose during the 1740s over the revivalism of the first Great Awakening; the second occurred during the 1830s due to slavery in the United States, theological issues, and the conduct of missionary work; the third took place in 1861 because of the American Civil War; and the fourth was during the 1920s and 1930s at the peak of the controversy between fundamentalism and modernism. In 1983 the two bodies formed during the Civil War were formally reunited as the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.); it had nearly 3.8 million members in the early 1990s.
Roman Catholic Church, the largest single Christian body, composed of those Christians who acknowledge the supreme authority of the bishop of Rome, the pope, in matters of faith. The Roman Catholic church regards itself as the only legitimate inheritor, by an unbroken episcopal succession descending from Saint Peter to the present time, of the commission and powers conferred by Jesus Christ on the 12 apostles. The church has had a profound influence on the development of European culture and on the introduction of European values into other civilizations. Its total membership in the early 1990s was about 958.4 million (about 17 percent of the world population). The church has its greatest numerical strength in Europe and Latin America.
The fundamental unit of organization in the Roman Catholic church is the diocese, headed by a bishop. The bishop is distinguished from the priest principally by the power to confer holy orders and to act as the usual minister of confirmation. The bishop also wields the highest jurisdictional powers within the diocese. Directly under the bishop are the clergy, both secular and religious. Secular clergy are not members of religious orders or congregations. The religious clergy, on the other hand, are primarily committed to their orders or congregations, which transcend diocesan boundaries. While working within a given diocese, these clergy must adhere to the bishop's decisions in matters of public worship but otherwise enjoy considerable discretion in their ministry.
At the head of the Roman Catholic church is the pope, who has final authority in all matters. The pope is assisted in his administration of the church by a complex bureaucracy known as the Curia. The pope appoints bishops to dioceses and transfers them to others. Cardinals are the highest dignitaries in the church after the pope. Appointed by the pope, they constitute the supreme council of the church, the Sacred College. On the death of a pope, the cardinals elect his successor.
Locating its beginnings in the earliest Christian communities and refusing to acknowledge any decisive break in its history, the Roman Catholic church considers itself heir to all the theological speculation of the apostolic, patristic, medieval, and modern periods. Like other Christian churches, the Roman Catholic church accepts the Bible as the basis for its teaching. Theologians also hold that certain truths or practices, although not found in Scripture, are validated by the tradition of the church. They also agree that the solemn decisions of the church, especially those that were arrived at by the ecumenical councils, are authentic interpretations of Christian doctrine.
Somewhat related to the theological notion of tradition is the doctrine of apostolic succession- that is, the continuous transmission of ministry from the time of Jesus until today. The most specific instance of these claims is that the pope is the successor of Saint Peter, who was chosen by Jesus as head of his church. Fundamental to Catholic belief in all ages has been the assumption that God's love and grace are mediated to the world in a uniquely efficacious way through the ministry of the church. With greater enthusiasm than other Western churches, Roman Catholicism fosters the veneration of the saints and especially of Mary, the mother of Jesus. Catholics also believe that they can help by their prayers and good works those who have died without being fully purified of their sins.
Catholic worship is centered on the Mass, at which the faithful are expected to be present every Sunday and on a few major feasts during the year. The Mass consists of several parts, of which the longest and most important are the so-called liturgy of the Word and the eucharistic liturgy, during which the Eucharist, one of the seven sacraments, is celebrated. Catholics believe in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist through the change of bread and wine into his body and blood (see transubstantiation) and are encouraged to receive the Eucharist at every Mass in which they participate. The other sacraments are baptism, confirmation, penance, holy orders, marriage, and the anointing of the sick. At the Second Vatican Council the church encouraged Catholics to work with members of other religions for common human goals and for the reunion of the various Christian churches.
Until the break with the Eastern church (see Orthodox Church) in 1054 and the break with the Protestant churches in the 1500s, it is impossible to separate the history of the Roman Catholic church from the history of Christianity in general. The first great change in Christian history was its spread from Palestine to the rest of the Mediterranean world in the first few decades after Jesus' death, at which time Christianity adopted some procedural and organizational practices of the Roman Empire. The characteristically Christian figure of the bishop had clearly emerged by the middle of the 2nd century. By the time of 5th-century pope Leo I, the bishop of Rome was claiming and to some extent exercising a primacy of leadership over the other churches (see Papacy).
The decline of the Roman Empire in the West and the assimilation of the Germanic peoples into the church had great impact on all aspects of religious life. In the late 11th century the papacy emerged as the acknowledged leader of the Western church, possessing a centralized and increasingly efficient Curia. The emphasis on the role of the papacy in governing the church made reconciliation with the Eastern church more difficult after the Great Schism of 1054. When the Protestant Reformation broke out in the 1500s, the Catholic church responded by reaffirming the traditions that had developed through the ages and especially by emphasizing those elements that were most under attack, such as Scholastic theology (see Scholasticism), the efficacy of the sacraments, and the primacy of the pope. The attacks launched against the church by the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century and the French Revolution (1789-1799) were largely responsible for the defensive postures struck by Catholicism long afterward. The Second Vatican Council (1962-1966) tried to reverse this trend.